CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL:

Roof tiles are designed mainly to keep out rain, and are traditionally made from locally
available materials such as terracotta or slate. Modern materials such as concrete and plastic are also used and
some clay tiles have a water proof glaze. Roof tiles are hung‟ from the framework of a roof by fixing them with
nails. The tiles are usually hung in parallel rows, with each row overlapping the row below it to exclude rain
water and to cover the nails that hold the row below. There are also roof tiles for special positions, particularly
where the planes of the several pitches meet. They include ridge, hip and valley tiles. Slate roof tiles were
traditional in some areas near sources of supply, and give thin and light tiles when the slate was split in to its
natural layers. It is no longer a cheap material, however and is now less common.

Building materials have undergone a lot of modification from ancient times till this present
technology era. With everyone seeking for affordable and comfortable houses to live in, every scientist and
engineer is working hard to develop and optimize new building materials that would be durable and cost
effective. Building materials range from roofing sheet, block, concrete, gravel, sand, clay, stone, cement, roofing
tiles, steel, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, laterite among others. Materials used for roof cladding in building
have evolved over time. A number of them have been deployed for specific reasons such as: building type,
weather condition, availability, cost, durability, and weight, among others. Common ones in use are: metal,
asphalt, wood, ceramic, polymers and quite recently concrete has been explored as a suitable material and found
to be useful.

1.2 PROFILES OF ROOF TILES:

A large number of profiles of roof tiles have evolved. These include: Flat Tiles: It is the simplest type, which are
laid in regular overlapping rows. Flat roof tiles are usually made of clay but also be made of stone, wood ,
plastic, concrete or solar cells.

Imbrex and Tegula: It is an ancient Roman pattern of curved and flat tiles that makes rain channels on a roof.

Roman Tiles: It is flat in the middle, with a concave curve at one end and convex curve at the other, to allow
interlocking.

Pantiles: It is with an S-shaped profile, allowing adjacent tile to interlock. These result in a ridged pattern
resembling a ploughed field.

Mission or Barrel Tiles: It is semi-cylindrical tiles laid in alternating columns of convex and concave tiles.
Originally they were made, by forming clay around a curved surface. Today barrel tiles are mass produced from
clay, metal, concrete or plastic.

Interlocking Roof Tiles: It is similar to pantiles with side and top locking to improve protection from water and
wind.

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY:

The use of M- sand, red soil and clay combined with RHA to produce roof tiles will impact significantly in
the reduction of roofing tile construction costs, while still converting the country’s deposits of agricultural waste
which is obviously an environmental health hazard to economic purposes for national development.

Page 1 of 21
1.4 AIM OF THE PROJECT:

The aim of this research was to explore the possibility of using of rice husk ash (RHA) and red soil with clay to
reduce the cost of production of low cost roof tiles by partially replacing Ordinary M-sand with RHA and red
soil with clay content

The objectives are:

1. To determine the physical properties of rice husk ash. These include specific gravity and particle size
distribution of the RHA , M-sand , red soil and clay.

2. To produce concrete roof tile using Rice Husk Ash with replacement of M-sandat (7%, 14%, 21%, 28%,
35%, and 42 %) and red soil at (23%) with replacement of clay at (27%)

3. Testing the produced sample for physical variations from the control sample produced.(compressive strength)

4. To compare the obtained result with standards for low cost roof tiles.

1.5 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES:

This study focuses on use of rice husk ash as partial replacement for M-sand in the production of low
cost roofing tiles. It makes use of the growing rice husk waste produced by varying its proportions (7%, 14%,
21%, 28%, 35% & 42%) in partial replacement of M-sand and 23% of red soil with 27% of clay used for low
cost roof tiles.

Page 2 of 21
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Disposal of rice husk ash is an important issue in the countries that cultivate large quantities of rice.
Rice husk has a very low nutritional value and as they take very long to decompose are not appropriate for
composting or manure. Therefore the 100 million tons of rice husk produced globally begins to impact the
environment if not disposed of properly. One effective method used today to rid the planet of rice husk is to use
it to fuel kilns. These kilns help to produce bricks and other clay products that are used in daily life and are also
useful in parboiling units that use RH as their fuel (Nnamdi, 2011). Burning the rice husk is an efficient way to
dispose of the rice cultivation byproduct while producing other useful goods. After the kilns have been fired
using rice husk, the ash still remains. This ash still has very significant application in the construction industry,
As the production rate of rice husk ash is about 20 % of the dried rice husk, the amount of RHA generated
yearly is about 20 million tons worldwide (Hwang, 1985).

The rice husk ash is a highly siliceous material that can be used as an admixture in concrete if the rice
husk is burnt in a specific manner. The characteristics of the ash are dependent on the components, temperature
and time of burning (Hwang, et.al 1985). During the burning process, the carbon content is burnt off and all that
remains is the silica content. The silica must be kept at a non-crystalline state in order to produce an ash with
high pozzalonic activity. The high pozzalonic behavior is a necessity if you intend to use it as a substitute or
admixture in concrete. It has been tested and found that the ideal temperature for producing such results is
between 600 °C and 700 °C. If the rice husk is burnt at too high a temperature or for too long the silica content
will become a crystalline structure. If the rice husk is burnt at too low a temperature or for too short a period of
time the rice husk ash will contain too large an amount of un-burnt carbon (Zemke and Woods 2009) .

The use of pozzolanas as alternatives for the commonly used Portland cement have been used in the
past few decades either for cost reduction, performance & durability enhancement or environmental reasons
(Nair, 2007). Malhorta and Mehta (1999)state thatpozzolanas are defined as siliceous or siliceous and aluminous
materials which in themselves possess little or no cementing property, but will in a finely dispersed form in the
presence of water chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties. When water is added to a mixture with pozzolanic material it acts as cement,
in some instances providing a stronger bond than cement alone.

According to Hegazy, et al (2012), materials such as lime, pozzolana, fly ash, limestone dust, blast
furnace slag, rice husk ash, corn cob ash, incinerator ash, billet scales, siliceous and ionic materials have
generally being adapted for use in construction works because of their known cementing properties.

The addition of rice husk ash to a concrete mixture has been proven to increase corrosion
resistance. It has a higher early strength than concrete without rice husk ash. The rice husk ash forms a calcium
silicate hydrate gel around the cement particles which is highly dense and less porous (Song, 1779). This will
prevent the cracking of the concrete and protect it from corrosion by not allowing any leeching agents to break
down the material. The study done by Song and Saraswathy found that the incorporation of RHA up to 30 %
replacement level reduces the chloride penetration, decreases permeability, and improves strength and corrosion
resistance properties.

The effects of humidity can result in a drastic change in the final behavior of the concrete. The
comparative tests performed and documented by (Jauberthie, 2002) between specimens stored in dry and wet
conditions have shown that at high humidity conservation the mortar gains strength by virtue of the well
developed pozzolanic reaction. This added strength is only under compression forces, specimens are more brittle
under a smaller flexural load than specimens stored at 50 % relative humidity (Hofstrand, et. al 1984). For
climates with high humidity levels, they indicate that there will be a higher compressive strength, but more
brittleness in the concrete produced. For the use of concrete with rice husk ash mixtures, it would be
recommended to use it concrete element supporting compressive forces (Zemke, and Woods 2009).

Page 3 of 21
 In 1962, a ―state-of-the-art‖ high pressure extrusion machine made in England was installed in Fremont,
Calif. In 1966, faster equipment produced in Australia was place in the factory located in Corona, Calif. The
economic production of much higher quality concrete tiles at three to four times the speed formerly obtainable
met the rapidly growing demand. Laws requiring fire-retardant roofs created a growing market for concrete tiles.
Homeowners and developers found concrete tile roofs aesthetically pleasing, permanent and fire-safe.

Cement as the major classical binder in construction industry is very expensive. This is because of
phenomenal population growth and urbanization which have triggered high demand of cement for several
construction purposes to meet up with the need to expand infrastructures(Otuoze, et.al 2012). Therefore the need
to connect the gap between demand and high price has warranted the need to investigate the use of cheaper
alternative sources.

In a study (Dabai, et.al 2009) disclosed that rice husk ash is one of the promising pozzolanic materials
that can be blended with Portland cement for the production of durable concrete and at the same time it is a
value added product. Addition of rice husk ash to Portland cement does not only improve the early strength of
concrete, but also forms a calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel around the cement particles which is highly dense
and less porous, and may increase the strength of concrete against cracking (Saraswathy and Ha- Won, 2007).

Rice is the major staple that is consumed worldwide and is grown on every continent
except Antarctica (Kartini, 2011). It is a primary source of food for billions of people, and ranks second to
wheat in terms of area and production. Nigeria which ranks as the 17th largest rice producing country in the
world (Omatola, 2009), cultivates rice in virtually all the agro-ecological zones in Nigeria and the most
important region for rice production being River Niger basin (Nnamdi, 2011).

Benue, Abakaliki, Afikpo, Ogoja, Ikepe, Lafiagi, Badeji, Pategi, Sokoto, BirninKebi,
Abeokuta, Benin and Delta region (Opara, 2011). Rice husk is the waste product generated from the
accumulation of the outer covering of rice grains during the milling process. Each country is faced with the
challenging problem of the disposal of this low valued by product within the framework of her economy.

In Makurdi and other towns in Benue state rice husk dumps are increasing in large
proportions, and as stated in (Omoniyi, 2013) use or. RHA could be obtained as a waste product from the
furnaces of rice parboiling units that utilize RH as their fuel (Ramezanianpour, 2009).

Page 4 of 21
 CHAPTER-3

MATERIALS

GENERAL:

This chapter deals with the materials used in this research and the various test that were carried out in
preparation of the production of Low cost roof tiles and also the test that were carried out on the tiles to check
durability and compliance according to ASTM C1492.

3.2 M-SAND:

Manufactured sand is crushed fine aggregate produced from a source material and designed for use in
concrete or for other specific products. Only source materials with suitable strength, durability and shape
characteristics should be used. Production generally involves crushing, screening and possibly washing.
Separation into discrete fractions, recombining and blending may be necessary.

3.3 CLAY:

Clay has the smallest particle size of any soiltype, with individual particles being so small that they can only
be viewed by an electron microscope.Thisfeature plays a large part in clay's smooth texture, because the
individual particles are too small to create a rough surface in the clay.Because of the small particle size of clay
soils, the structure of clay-heavysoil tends to be very dense.Clay contains very littleorganic material; you often
need to add amendments if you wish to grow plants in clay-heavy soil.

3.4 REDSOIL:

Red soils are highly leached soils of thehumid tropics having a high content of sesquioxides.Low natural
fertility is the main limiting factor for good crop production on these soils and they are frequently acidic and
deficient in all essential nutrients, especially N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Zn, B, and Cu. Adequate applications of lime
and fertilizers are important strategies for replenishing soil fertility and improving crop yields on these soils.
Adequate applications of lime and fertilizers are importantstrategies for replenishing soil fertility and improving
crop yields on these soils.

3.5 RICE HUSK ASH:

Rice Husk Ash is an Rice milling industry generates a lot of rice husk during milling of paddy which comes
from the fields. This rice husk is mostly used as a fuel in the boilers for processing of paddy. Rice husk is also
used as a fuel for power generation. Rice husk ash (RHA) is about 25% by weight of rice husk when burnt in.

3.6 WATER:

Potable tap water was used for mixing andcuring of specimens. The water reacts with the clay and sand,
which bonds the other components together, creating a solid like material

Page 5 of 21
 CHAPTER-4

METHODOLOGY

Page 6 of 21
 CHAPTER-5

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

5.1 PRILIMINARY TEST FOR MATERIALS:

Specific gravity and Sieve Analysis was made for an each materials of Rice husk ash, Clay, Red soil and M-
sand.

5.1.1 Specific Gravity of Rice Husk Ash:

Aim: To determine the specific gravity of Rice Husk ash. Apparatus:

1. A Pycnometer

2. A balance of 3kg capacity

3. ½ Litres of capacity glass jar and ground glass dish.

4. A drying duster.

Theory:

The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its unit weight to that of water. For the purpose of mix design,
the specific gravity of saturated and surface-dry basis is used. Thespecific gravity of Rice husk ashfalls with the
range of 2.00 — 3.00. The specific gravity of anRice husk ash is an important factor affecting the density of the
resulting roof tiles. The specific gravity of a Rice husk ash can be determined from the expression below.

Where B = Weight of Rice husk ash.

P= Weight of Pycnometer

Ps=W eight of Pycnometer + water + Rice husk ash.

Procedure:

Step 1: The Pycnometer was filled with distilled water to full capacity with the screw in position and
the outside dried and the weight was recorded (P).

Step2: The cap was unscrewed and a sample of surface dry (oven dry) sand of know weight (600g) or
(mg of Rice husk ash) (B) was introduced.

Page 7 of 21
 Step 3: The cap was replaced and the Pycnometer refilled to full the Capacity with distilled water. All
trapped was eliminated by rotating the Pycnometer on its side whilst covering the hole with finger.

Step 4: The outside of the Pycnometer was dried and reweighed (Ps). The Pycnometer now contained
less water than before and the weight of water occupying the same volume as the sample is (P + B + PS).

5.1.2 Specific Gravity Of Clay:

Aim:

To determine the specific gravity of Clay. Apparatus:

1. A Pycnometer

2. A balance of 3kg capacity

3. ½ Litres of capacity glass jar and ground glass dish.

4. A drying duster.

Theory:

The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its unit weight to that of water. For the purpose of mix
design, the specific gravity of saturated and surface-dry basis is used. The specific gravity of Clay falls with the
range of 1.80 — 2.50. The specific gravity of an Clay is an important factor affecting the density of the resulting
roof tiles. The specific gravity of a clay can be determined from the expression below.

Where B = Weight of Clay.

P= Weight of Pycnometer

Ps=W eight of Pycnometer + water + Clay.

Procedure:

Step 1: The Pycnometer was filled with distilled water to full capacity with the screw in position and
the outside dried and the weight was recorded (P).

Step2: The cap was unscrewed and a sample of surface dry (oven dry) sand of know weight (600g) of
Clay (B) was introduced.

Step 3: The cap was replaced and the Pycnometer refilled to full the Capacity with distilled water. All
trapped was eliminated by rotating the Pycnometer on its side whilst covering the hole with finger.

Step 4: The outside of the Pycnometer was dried and reweighed (Ps). The Pycnometer now contained
less water than before and the weight of water occupying the same volume as the sample is (P + B + PS).

Page 8 of 21
 5.1.3 Specific Gravity of Red Soil:

Aim:

To determine the specific gravity of Red soil.

Apparatus:

1. A Pycnometer

2. A balance of 3kg capacity

3. ½ Litres of capacity glass jar and ground glass dish.

4. A drying duster.

Theory:

The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its unit weight to that of water. For the purpose of mix
design, the specific gravity of saturated and surface-dry basis is used. The specific gravity of Red soil falls with
the range of 1.20 — 1.50. The specific gravity of an Red soil is an important factor affecting the density of the
resulting roof tiles. The specific gravity of a Red soil can be determined from the expression below.

Where B = Weight of Red soil.

P= Weight of Pycnometer

Ps=Weight of Pycnometer + water + Red soil.

Procedure:

Step 1: The Pycnometer was filled with distilled water to full capacity with the screw in position and the outside
dried and the weight was recorded (P).

Step2: The cap was unscrewed and a sample of surface dry (oven dry) sand of know weight (600g) of Clay (B)
was introduced.

Step 3: The cap was replaced and the Pycnometer refilled to full the Capacity with distilled water. All trapped
was eliminated by rotating the Pycnometer on its side whilst covering the hole with finger.

Step 4: The outside of the Pycnometer was dried and reweighed (Ps). The Pycnometer now contained less water
than before and the weight of water occupying the same volume as the sample is (P + B + PS).

5.1.4 Specific Gravity of M-sand:

Aim: To determine the specific gravity of M-sand.

Apparatus:

Page 9 of 21
1. A Pycnometer

2. A balance of 3kg capacity

3. ½ Litres of capacity glass jar and ground glass dish.

4. A drying duster.

Theory:

The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its unit weight to that of water. For the purpose of mix design,
the specific gravity of saturated and surface-dry basis is used. The specific gravity of M-sand falls with the
range of 2.00 — 2.80. The specific gravity of an M-sandis an important factor affecting the density of the
resulting roof tiles. The specific gravity of aM-sandcan be determined from the expression below.

Where B = Weight of M-sand.

P= Weight of Pycnometer

Ps=W eight of Pycnometer + water + M-sand.

Procedure:

Step 1: The Pycnometer was filled with distilled water to full capacity with the screw in position and the outside
dried and the weight was recorded (P).

Step2: The cap was unscrewed and a sample of surface dry (oven dry) sand of know weight (600g) of Clay (B)
was introduced.

Step 3: The cap was replaced and the Pycnometer refilled to full the Capacity with distilled water. All trapped
was eliminated by rotating the Pycnometer on its side whilst covering the hole with finger.

Step 4: The outside of the Pycnometer was dried and reweighed (Ps). The Pycnometer now contained less water
than before and the weight of water occupying the same volume as the sample is (P + B + PS).

Page 10 of 21
5.2 Particle size Distribution:

Aim:

Determination of particle size distribution in a sample of M-sand, Red soil and Clay. Apparatus:

1. Set of B.S Sieves of sizes (5.0, 3.35, 2.36, 1.70, 1.80, 0.85, 0.60, 0.425, 0.30, 0. 5, 0.075, pan) mm
for all sample.

2. Balance readable and accurate to 0.1% of the weight is test samples.

Theory:

Sieve analysis involves determination of the size ranges of particle present in all sample expressed as a
percentage of the total dry weight. The sieve analysis method is used to determine the particle sizes of aggregate
larger than 0.075mm e.g. Sand, gravels, cobbles, pebbles, boulders etc. while the hydrometer analysis are use to
determine the particle size soil aggregate less than or smaller than 0.075mm in diameter.

In sieve analysis, the soil sample is passed through a series of standard test sieves having progressively
smaller openings (smaller mesh sizes). The weight of the soil retained in each of the sieves is determined and
the cumulative percentage by weight passing each sieve is calculated mathematically. The sieve analysis
procedure were repeated same for all the particles to find the particle size distribution.

5.2.1 Procedure for M-sand:

Step 1: AM-sand sample was sun dried to remove all the moisture in the sand.

Step 2: The sample was the weighed 1000g and poured into the mounted set of sieves.

Step 3: The sieves were manually vibrated for 30 seconds.

Step 4: Then each sieve was carefully removed and the retained sample was weighed and
recorded.

Step 5: The process in step 4 was continued until all the retained mass on the sieve was
recorded.

5.2.2 Procedure for Red soil:

Step 1: A Red soil sample was sun dried to remove all the moisture in the sand.

Step 2: The sample was the weighed 1000g and poured into the mounted set of sieves.

Step 3: The sieves were manually vibrated for 30 seconds.

Step 4: Then each sieve was carefully removed and the retained sample was weighed and
recorded.

Step 5: The process in step 4 was continued until all the retained mass on the sieve was
recorded.

Page 11 of 21
5.2.3 Procedure for Clay:

Step 1: A Clay sample was sun dried to remove all the moisture in the sand.

Step 2: The sample was the weighed 1000g and poured into the mounted set of sieves.

Step 3: The sieves were manually vibrated for 30 seconds.

Step 4: Then each sieve was carefully removed and the retained sample was weighed and
recorded.

Step 5: The process in step 4 was continued until all the retained mass on the sieve was
recorded.

Page 12 of 21
5.3 MIX DESIGN:

5.3.1 SPECIMEN SIZE:

Length = 8‖

Width = 8‖

Thickness = 1‖

• MASS = VOULME (X) DENSITY = 203.2 * 203.2 * 0.0254 * 2400 = 2.5 KG TOTAL WEIGHT = 2.5 kg (8”
* 8” * 1”)

The water quantity will be maintain same for all mix ratio : 0.5 kg

5.3.2 MIX RATIO:

1st MIX: STANDARD ROOF TILES

2nd MIX: 7% OF RHA AND 43% OF M-SAND

3rd MIX: 14% OF RHA AND 36% OF M-SAND

Page 13 of 21
4th MIX: 21% OF RHA AND 29% OF M-SAND

5TH MIX: 28% OF RHA AND 22% OF M-SAND

6th MIX: 35% OF RHA AND 15% OF M-SAND

7th MIX: 42% OF RHA AND 8% OF M-SAND

5.4 EQUIPMENT USED FOR CASTING OF SPECIMEN:

Page 14 of 21
Thespecimens were casted according to the mix procedure by the following equipments and curing were made
at the outside of the lab.

5.4.1 Moulds (Wooden/metal):

Because clay mortar sets slowly and the tiles need to be left on the moulds at least overnight before they can be
removed. Because it is important that roof tiles cure in a damp environment, the enveloping type of mould was
used. These moulds were stacked one on top of the other and hence cover the curing tiles and prevent them from
drying out too quickly.

Fig:1

5.5 PRODUCTION OF ROOFING TILES:

1. The materials were collected according to the batch. Where weights are taken for each materials according to
the mixes.

2. All the materials were poured into a pan mixer for each batch and allowed to mix by using trowel thoroughly
before finally adding water gradually while monitoring workability. In this experiment various mix ratios for
cement replacement with RHA will be done at 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 and 42% with M-sand.

3. The mortar mix was now transferred onto wheelbarrow and driven to the casting table, then spreading of the
mortar in the mould.

4. The damping rod were used to dump the clay mortar in the mould for an well settlement of roof tiles.

5. The tile was now removed and the green tile carefully slid to set.

6. The moulds were then stacked and allowed to cure slowly for 24 hours.

7. After 24 hours the tiles were removed from the moulds and placed at the outside of the lab , leaning the tiles
against each other.

Page 15 of 21
5.6 EXPERIMENTAL TEST PROCEDURES ON ROOF TILES:

 Due to the preciseness required in the production of roofing tiles and the time available for this research, the
replacement levels were limited to a maximum of 42 %.

 The development of the sample size is 8 inch length × 8 inch width ×1 inch thickness.

 The shape of the tile is flat and unbevelled, and has no provision for installation since this research has limited
funding, manufacture of formwork to otherwise provide for this elaborate design would seem unreasonable thus
the viability of the tile and not its usability is tested.

 Only the compressive strength and water absorption are determined; thus no simulation of installed tile to
examine performance in rainfall and wind condition has been carried out. This research has produced 7 samples
each of the replaced ratios including the control samples.

 One sample per test for each tile batch mix, testing of the tile was done for durations after casting; of 7 days
curing. A total of 7 samples were produced and test made for each sample to monitor strength gain.

5.7 TESTING OF LOW COST ROOF TILES:

Two test have been made for low cost roof tiles. This test are made to find out the water absorption capacity of
low cost roof tiles and ultimate strength of the low cost roofing tiles.

The tests are:

i Water Absorption Test.

ii Compressive Strength Test.

5.7.1 WATER ABSORPTION TEST:

AIM: • To determine the percentage of water absorption of roofing tiles.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: • A sensitive balance.

PROCEDURE:

 Dry the tiles selected in an oven at a temperature of 105 ° TO 110 °C till they attain constant weight
and then cool and weigh (M1 ).
 When cool, immerse the dry specimen completely in clean water at 27±2°C for 24 hours.
 Remove each specimen, wipe off the surface water carefully with a damp cloth and weigh the
specimen nearest to a gram (M2 ) within 3 minutes after removing the specimen from the tank.

CALCULATION:

• Percentage of water absorption

• Where =wt. of the specimen after 24 hours immersion in clean water

•M1 = wt. of the dry specimen.

Page 16 of 21
5.7.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST:

 Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads
tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength, which withstands loads tending to elongate. In other
words, compressive strength resists compression (being pushed together), whereas tensile strength resists
tension (being pulled apart). In this study and shear strength of roof tiles can be analyzed independently.

 The compressive strength test were made and values were finded by using the compressive strength testing
machine at capable of 10N.

 Load was applied manually to a hydraulic press machine through a cylindrical steel indenter of 19.5 mm in
diameter and length of about 30mm on the tiles under test. The load was centrally applied on the tile specimen
until the first sign of crack was observed then the load at cracking was recorded to be the crushing load. The
compressive strength of each tile specimen is calculated by:

 Where “Pc”is the total load on the specimen at failure,

 “Ac” is the calculated cross-sectional area and

 “σc” isthe compressive strength of the test

Page 17 of 21
5.8 COMPARISON OF RESULTS:

5.8.1 WATER ABSORPTION:

Table 5.7.1 shows water absorption of specimen at various replacement levels. Comparison graph indicates
highest levels of water absorption for 35 and 42 % replacement Rice husk ash with M-Sand for 24 hrs. This
complies with water content increasing linearly with % increment of RHA. The graph shows the best trend for
water absorption at 42 % replacement.

Page 18 of 21
5.8.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH:

Table 5.7.2 displays the average compressive strength in N/mm2 of the tile specimen at different levels of
replacement. At 0 % replacement compressive strength gain after 7 days records 0.21 N/mm2 moving through
to 0.05 N/mm2 at final replacement of Rice husk ash with M-sand. The best curve is at 7 % replacement where
strength gain starts form 0.21 N/mm2 at standard roof tiles and progresses steadily to 0.23 N/mm2 at 7%
replacement of Rice husk ash with M-sand. The graph shows the difference of strength attain by roof tiles at
different mix proportions.

Page 19 of 21
 CHAPTER-6

CONCLUSION

From our experimental study, we conclude that replacement of Rice husk ash in making roof tiles will be
light effective if the replacement ratio lies below 7%. This study prove that 7% replacement of Rice husk ash in
roof tiles with similar compressive strength, it would be a great benefit in both economic and environmental
concern. And further replacement of Rice husk ash at the percentage of (14%, 21%, 28%, 35% and 42%)
effectively, it will indirectly reduce the strength of the low cost roof tiles. Thus, both economic and
environmental benefits occurs at the percentage of 7%Rice husk ash and it can be followed for an making of low
cost roofing tiles.

Page 20 of 21
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[2] Saravanan J, Sridhar M, ―Construction Technology, Challenges and Possibilities of Low Carbon Buildings
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[3] Saravanan J, Sridhar M, Vinitha Judith J, ―Effective Utilization of Vinyl Flex Banners – A Solid Waste
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[4] Saravanan J, Sridhar M, ―Flex Crete: Low Cost Concrete Using Old Vinyl Banners as Partial Replacement
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