ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

ANS
Divisions of the Nervous System Afferent Nerves

 the vertebrate nervous system is - Sensory signals from internal organs CNS
composed of two divisions: Efferent Nerves

- Motor signals from CNS internal organs

1.) Central Nervous System

- is the division of the nervous system
located within the skull and spine.
- composed of two divisions: the brain
and the spinal cord. The brain is the
part of the CNS located in the skull; the
spinal cord is the part located in the
spine.

2.) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

- is the division located outside the skull
and spine.
- also composed of two divisions:
somatic nervous system (SNS) is the
part of the PNS that interacts with the
external
environment. It is composed of afferent
nerves that carry sensory signals from
the skin, skeletal muscles, joints, eyes,
ears, and so on, to the central nervous
system and efferent nerves that carry
NOTE: even those portions of nerves that
motor signals from the central nervous
are within the spinal cord are considered to
system to the skeletal muscles.
be part of the PNS.
- autonomic nervous system (ANS) is
the part of the peripheral nervous Two Kinds of Autonomic Nervous
system that regulates the body’s internal System Efferent Nerves:
environment. It is composed of afferent
nerves that carry sensory signals from 1. Sympathetic Nerves
internal organs to the CNS and efferent - are autonomic motor nerves that
nerves that carry motor signals from the project from the CNS in the lumbar
CNS to internal organs. (small of the back) and thoracic (chest
area) regions of the spinal cord.
Keypoints: 2. Parasympathetic Nerves
SNS - are those autonomic motor nerves that
project from the brain and sacral (lower
Afferent Nerves
back) region of the spinal cord.
- Sensory signals from skin, skeletal muscles, joints,
eyes, ears, etc. CNS

Efferent Nerves

- Motor signals from CNS skeletal muscles

 are specific, disruptions of particular cranial
The conventional view of the respective nerve functions provide excellent clues
functions of the sympathetic and about the location and extent of tumors and
parasympathetic systems stresses other kinds of brain pathology.
three important principles:

(1) sympathetic nerves stimulate,

organize, and mobilize energy
resources in threatening situations,
whereas parasympathetic nerves
act to conserve energy;
(2) each autonomic target organ
receives opposing sympathetic
and parasympathetic input, and its
activity is thus controlled by relative
levels of sympathetic and
parasympathetic activity; and Meninges
(3) sympathetic changes are indicative
 The brain and spinal cord (the CNS) are
of psychological arousal, whereas
the most protected organs in the body.
parasympathetic changes are
They are encased in bone and covered
indicative of psychological
by three protective membranes, the
relaxation.
three meninges.
Although these principles are generally
correct, there are significant qualifications 1. Dura Mater
and exceptions to each of them:  The outer meninx (which, believe it or
not, is the singular of meninges) is a
 Most of the nerves of the peripheral tough membrane called the dura mater
nervous system project from the spinal (tough mother).
cord, but there are 12 pairs of 2. Arachnoid Membrane
exceptions: the 12 pairs of cranial  Immediately inside the dura mater is the
nerves, which project from the brain. fine arachnoid membrane (spider-web-
 They are numbered in sequence from like membrane).
front to back. The cranial nerves include  Beneath the arachnoid membrane is a
purely sensory nerves such as the space called the subarachnoid space,
olfactory nerves (I) and the optic which contains many large blood
nerves (II), but most contain both vessels and cerebrospinal fluid;
sensory and motor fibers. The longest 3. Pia Mater
cranial nerves are the vagus nerves  then comes the innermost meninx, the
(X), which contain motor and sensory delicate pia mater (pious mother), which
fibers traveling to and from the gut. adheres to the surface of the CNS.
 The autonomic motor fibers of the
cranial nerves are parasympathetic.
The functions of the various cranial nerves Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
are commonly assessed by neurologists
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
as a basis for diagnosis. Because the
 protect the CNS
functions and locations of the cranial nerves
 supports and cushions the brain
 fills the subarachnoid space, the central
canal of the spinal cord, and the
cerebral ventricles of the brain.
 Central Canal - a small central channel
that runs the length of the spinal cord.
 Cerebral Ventricles - are the four large
internal chambers of the brain: the two
lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and
the fourth ventricle.

 Patients who have had some of their

cerebrospinal fluid drained away often
suffer raging headaches and experience
stabbing pain each time they jerk their
heads.
 Cerebrospinal Fluid is produced by the
choroid plexuses (networks of
capillaries, or small blood vessels that
protrude into the ventricles from the pia
mater), and the excess cerebrospinal
fluid is continuously absorbed from the
Blood-Brain Barrier
subarachnoid space into large blood-
filled spaces, or dural sinuses, which run  The brain is a finely tuned
through the dura mater and drain into electrochemical organ whose function
the large jugular veins of the neck. can be severely disturbed by the
 The flow of cerebrospinal fluid is introduction of certain kinds of
blocked by a tumor near one of the chemicals. Fortunately, a mechanism
narrow channels that link the ventricles impedes the passage of many toxic
—for example, near the cerebral substances from the blood into the
aqueduct, which connects the third and brain: the blood–brain barrier.
fourth ventricles. The resulting buildup  This barrier is a consequence of the
of fluid in the ventricles causes the walls special structure of cerebral blood
of the ventricles, and thus the entire vessels.
brain, to expand, producing a condition  In the rest of the body, the cells that
called hydrocephalus (water head). compose the walls of blood vessels are
Hydrocephalus is treated by draining the loosely packed; as a result, most
excess fluid from the ventricles and molecules pass readily through them
trying to remove the obstruction. into surrounding tissue. In the brain,
however, the cells of the blood vessel
walls are tightly packed, thus forming a
barrier to the passage of many
molecules—particularly proteins and
other large molecules.
 The degree to which therapeutic or
recreational drugs can influence brain
activity depends on the ease with
 which they penetrate the blood–brain
barrier.
NEURON CELL MEMBRANE
 The blood–brain barrier does not
impede the passage of all large  The neuron cell membrane is composed
molecules. Some large molecules that of a lipid bilayer, or two layers of fat
are critical for normal brain function molecules. Embedded in the lipid
(e.g., glucose) are actively transported bilayer are numerous protein molecules
through cerebral blood vessel walls. that are the basis of many of the cell
 Many CNS disorders are associated membrane’s functional properties. Some
with impairment of the blood–brain membrane proteins are;
barrier.  Channel Proteins - through which
certain molecules can pass.
 Signal Proteins - which transfer a signal
Cells of the Nervous System to the inside of the neuron when
particular molecules bind to them on the
Two Fundamental Types of Cells in the
outside of the membrane.
Nervous System:
 Neurons
 Glial Cells

Anatomy of Neurons
Recall that neurons are cells that are
specialized for the reception, conduction,
and transmission of electrochemical
signals. They come in an incredible variety
of shapes and sizes.

CLASSES OF NEURONS
 a way of classifying neurons based on
the number of processes (projections)
emanating from their cell bodies.
Multipolar
 A neuron with more than two processes
extending from its cell body.
 Most neurons are multipolar.
Unipolar
 A neuron with one process extending
from its cell body.
Bipolar  clusters of cell bodies are called
ganglia (singular ganglion).
 A neuron with two processes extending
from its cell body.
Interneurons NOTE: the word nucleus has two different
 Neurons with a short axon or no axon at neuroanatomical meanings; it is a structure
all.
in the neuron cell body and a cluster of cell
 Function is to integrate neural activity
within a single brain structure, not to bodies in the CNS.
conduct sig nals from one structure to
another.
Central Nervous System
 bundles of axons are called tracts.
Peripheral Nervous System
 bundles of axons are called nerves.

Glia: The Forgotten Cells

 Neurons are not the only cells in the
nervous system; there are about as
many glial cells, or glia.
 There are roughly two glia for every
three neurons in your brain.
Several kinds of glia:
1. Oligodendrocytes are glial cells with
NEURONS AND NEUROANATOMICAL extensions that wrap around the axons
STRUCTURE of some neurons of the central nervous
system. These extensions are rich in
myelin, a fatty insulating substance,
Two Kinds of Gross Neural Structures in and the myelin sheaths they form
the Nervous System: increase the speed of axonal
conduction.
Those composed primarily of cell bodies 2. Schwann cells, a second class of glia.
and those composed primarily of axons. A similar function is performed in the
peripheral nervous system.
- Each Schwann cell constitutes one
Central Nervous System myelin segment, whereas each
oligodendrocyte provides several
 clusters of cell bodies are called
myelin segments, often on more than
nuclei (singular nucleus).
one axon.
Peripheral Nervous System
Schwann Cell = One Myelin Segment

Oligodendrocyte = Several Myelin Segment

 - Only Schwann cells can guide axonal the blood flow demands of particular
regeneration (regrowth) after damage. brain regions.
- Effective axonal regeneration in the
mammalian nervous system is restricted
to the PNS.

For decades, it was assumed that the

function of glia was mainly to provide
support for neurons—provide them with
nutrition, clear waste, and form a physical
matrix to hold neural circuits together (glia
means “glue”). But this limited view of the
role of glial cells has changed, thanks to a
series of remarkable findings. For example,
astrocytes, the most studied of the glial
3. Microglia make up a third class of glia. cells, have been shown to exchange
Microglia are smaller than other glial chemical signals with neurons and other
cells. They respond to injury or disease astrocytes, to control the establishment and
by multiplying, engulfing cellular debris maintenance of synapses between neurons,
or even entire cells, and triggering to modulate neural activity, to form
inflammatory responses. functional networks with neurons and other
4. Astrocytes constitute a fourth class of astrocytes, to control the blood–brain
glia. They are the largest glial cells, and barrier, to respond to brain injury, and to
they are so named because they are play a role in certain forms of cognition.
star-shaped (astro means “star”). The
Microglia have also been shown to play
extensions of some astrocytes cover the
many more roles in brain function than had
outer surfaces of blood vessels that
previously been thought; for example, they
course through the brain; they also
have been shown to play a role in the
make contact with neurons. These
regulation of cell death, synapse formation,
particular astrocytes appear to play a
and synapse elimination.
role in allowing the passage of some
chemicals from the blood into CNS Research on the function of glia, although
neurons and in blocking other still in its early stages, is creating
chemicals, and they have the ability to considerable excitement. There is now
contract or relax blood vessels based on substantial evidence that the physiological
effects of glia are both numerous and
much more important than anyone might
have imagined two decades ago.
For example, some researchers have
suggested that glial networks may be the
dwelling places of thoughts.
One final important discovery about glial nitrate, when he noticed an amazing
cells is that they are much more varied than thing. The silver chromate created by
implied by the four types that we have just the chemical reaction of the two
described: oligodendrocytes, Schwann substances Golgi was using invaded a
cells, microglia, and astrocytes. For few neurons in each slice of tissue and
example, a new type of glial cell was stained each invaded neuron entirely
recently discovered; and at least fifteen black.
different kinds of astrocytes have been  This discovery made it possible to see
identified, each with its own structure, individual neurons for the first time,
physiology, and specific locations in the although only in silhouette.
brain. Sorting out the functions of each type  Golgi stains are commonly used to
is not going to be easy. discover the overall shape of
neurons.

Neuroanatomical Techniques and

Directions NISSL STAIN
 Although the Golgi stain permits an
excellent view of the silhouettes of the
Neuroanatomical Techniques
few neurons that take up the stain, it
 The major problem in visualizing provides no indication of the number
neurons is not that they are minute. The of neurons in an area.
major problem is that neurons are so  The first neural staining procedure to
tightly packed and their axons and overcome this shortcoming was the
dendrites so intricately intertwined that Nissl stain, which was developed by
looking through a microscope at Franz Nissl, a German psychiatrist, in
unprepared neural tissue reveals almost the 1880s.
nothing about them.  The most common dye used in the Nissl
 The key to the study of method is cresyl violet.
neuroanatomy lies in preparing neural  Cresyl violet and other Nissl dyes
tissue in a variety of ways, each of penetrate all cells on a slide, but they
which permits a clear view of a different bind to molecules (i.e., DNA and RNA)
aspect of neuronal structure, and then that are most prevalent in neuron cell
combining the knowledge obtained from bodies. Thus, they often are used to
each of the preparations. estimate the number of cell bodies in
an area, by counting the number of
Nissl-stained dots.
GOLGI STAIN
 The greatest blessing to befall ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
neuroscience in its early years was the
accidental discovery of the Golgi stain  A neuroanatomical technique that
by Camillo Golgi an Italian physician, in provides information about the details of
the early 1870s. neuronal structure is electron
 Golgi was trying to stain the meninges, microscopy. Because of the nature of
by exposing a block of neural tissue to light, the limit of magnification in light
potassium dichromate and silver microscopy is about 1,500 times, a level
 of magnification insufficient to reveal the
fine anatomical details of neurons.
 Greater detail can be obtained by first
coating thin slices of neural tissue with
an electron-absorbing substance that is
taken up by different parts of neurons to
different degrees, then passing a beam
of electrons through the tissue onto a
photographic film.
 The result is an electron micrograph,
which captures neuronal structure in
exquisite detail.
 A scanning electron microscope
provides spectacular electron
micrographs in three dimensions, but
it is not capable of as much
magnification as conventional electron
microscopy.
 The strength of electron microscopy is
also a weakness: Because the images
are so detailed, they can make it difficult
to visualize general aspects of
neuroanatomical structure.

NEUROANATOMICAL TRACING
TECHNIQUES

Two types: anterograde (forward) tracing

methods and retrograde
(backward) tracing methods Anterograde
tracing methods are used when an
investigator wants to trace the paths of
axons projecting away from cell bodies
located in a particular area. The investigator
begins by injecting one of several chemicals
commonly used for anterograde tracing into
the cell body. It is then taken up by cell
bodies and transported forward along their
axons to their terminal buttons. Then, after a
few days, the investigator removes the brain
and slices it. Those slices are then treated
to reveal the locations of the injected
chemical.