Answers to exercises Tutorial 1

Fluid Mechanics 1

3.A (to be presented at Tutorial #1): A manometer is formed from glass tubing
with uniform inside diameter, D = 6.35 mm as shown. The U-tube is partially filled
with water. Then V = 3.25 cm3 of Meriam red oil is added to the left side. Calculate
the equilibrium height, H, when both legs of the U-tube are open to the atmosphere.
(3.21 (8th), 3.17 (9th))

Answer: First, we apply ∆p = −ρg∆z to rewrite the hydrostatic pressure difference

between points A and B in the left leg, and between points C and B’ in the right leg (B
and B’ chosen at the same height). Note that for increasing elevation z, the pressure
decreases, leading to a minus sign in the equation for ∆p. This gives
pB − pA = −ρoil g (zB − zA ) = −ρoil g (−L) = ρoil gL, (1)

pB ′ − pC = −ρw g (zB ′ − zC ) = ρw g(L − H), (2)

respectively. Here, ρw and ρoil denote the densities of water and oil, and g is the
acceleration of gravity. Also, we have used the quantities L and H as indicated in the
figure.
Then, since points A and C are both open to the atmosphere, it follows that pA =
pC = patm , so we may rewrite the above into
pB = patm + ρoil gL, (3)

pB ′ = patm + ρw g(L − H). (4)

Because points B and B’ are at the same height in a single continuous liquid, it follows
that pB = pB ′ . Hence, we can simply equate the right-hand sides of Eqs.(3) and (4), i.e.
patm
  + ρoil gL =   + ρw g(L − H),
patm (5)

ρoil gL
− H),

= ρw g(L (6)

ρw H = ρw L − ρoil L = (ρw − ρoil )L, (7)

1
to derive an expression for H:
 
ρoil
H = 1− L = (1 − SGoil ) L. (8)
ρw

Here, SGoil = 0.827 is the specific gravity of Meriam red oil (value from Table A.1 in
the appendix of the FM-book).
As a last step before we can calculate H, we need to determine the oil height L. This
is readily done from the known volume V = 3.25 cm3 and the tube’s cross-sectional area
A with tube diameter D = 6.35 mm:
V V 3.25 × 10−6
L= = 1 2
= 1 2
= 0.103 m. (9)
A 4 πD 4 π(0.00635)

By substituting Eq.(9) into Eq.(8), we finally obtain the required equilibrium height:

H = 0.0178 m = 17.8 mm, (10)

here presented with a precision of three significant digits.

2
 3.B (to be presented at Tutorial #1): The gate shown is hinged at H. The gate is
3 m wide normal to the plane of the diagram. Calculate the force required at A to hold
the gate closed. (3.66 (8th): but different variables, 3.32 (10th))

Answer: In equilibrium, the sum of all moments around the hinge point H must
be zero. We distinguish two moments: a net hydrostatic moment Mhyd , exerted by the
water on the left/below (‘net’, so in excess to that exerted by the atmosphere on the
right/above), and an external moment Mext , exerted by the external force F . We thus
write X
M = Mhyd + Mext = 0. (11)
The hydrostatic moment follows from surface integration of the hydrostatic force, multi-
plied with the local arm (distance to hinge point, for now denoted r), over the gate. The
external moment simply equals the product of force and arm (noting that the external
force is applied perpendicular to the gate). We thus write
Z
Mhyd = r dFhyd , Mext = −F L, (12)

where we have used the sign convention that clockwise moments have a negative sign1 .
Let us now turn to the hydrostatic moment:

ˆ To account for the atmosphere pressing against the water from the right, we must
use gage pressure:
dFhyd = pgage dA. (13)

ˆ Define a new coordinate system, y, conveniently aligned with the gate and with
its origin y = 0 at the hinge, as shown in the figure above. Our new coordinate
thus coincides with the arm in the above integration, i.e. r = y. Furthermore, it
follows that
dA = W dy. (14)

ˆ Introducing the gate angle θ = 30◦ , the hydrostatic gage pressure at the gate is
then expressed in terms of y according to

pgage (y) = ρgD + ρgy sin θ. (15)

1
Adopting the opposite sign convention is also fine, as long as you are consistent.

3
Combining Eqs.(13)-(15), we immediately obtain
Z L
Mhyd = W pgage (y)y dy
0
Z L
=W (ρgD + ρgy sin θ) y dy
0
Z L
= ρgW (Dy + y 2 sin θ)dy
0
 L
1 2 1 3
= ρgW 2 Dy + 3 y sin θ
0

= ρgW L2 1
+ 13 L sin θ = 331 × 103 Nm.


2D (16)

Here we have used that ρ = 1000 kg m−3 , g = 9.81 m s−2 , W = 3 m, L = 3 m,

D = 1.5 m, and sin θ = 12 .
Finally, we apply the equilibrium condition in Eq.(11) to compute the external force

Mhyd
F = = 1.1 × 102 kN, (17)
L
here presented with a precision of two significant digits.2

2
Using two significant digits actually requires W and L to be known with two digits, as well.

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 3.C (self-study during Tutorial #1): Determine the gage pressure in kPa at point a,
if liquid A has SG = 1.20 and liquid B has SG = 0.75. The liquid surrounding point a
is water, and the tank on the left is open to the atmosphere. (3.24 (8th), 3.13 (10th))

Answer: Let us define points A, B and C precisely at the interfaces as shown, along
with their horizontal counterparts B’ and C’. Let us now use:

ˆ the hydrostatic relationship ∆p = −ρg∆z,

ˆ the specific gravity relationships3 ρ1 = ρw SG1 and ρ2 = ρw SG2 ,

ˆ that points at the same height in a single continuous liquid have the same pressure.

Using the above, we find the following six relationships:

pA = patm , (18)

pB ′ − pA = SG2 ρw g(zA − zB ′ ), (19)

pB − pB ′ = 0, (20)

pC ′ − pB = SG1 ρw g(zB − zC ′ ), (21)

pC − pC ′ = 0, (22)

pa − pC = ρw g(zC − za ). (23)

By simply adding Eqs.(18)-(23), we immediately obtain4

pa = patm + SG2 ρw (zA − zB ′ ) + SG1 ρw (zB − zC ′ ) + ρw (zC − za ). (24)

Then, using ρw = 1000 kg m−3 , SG1 = 1.20 and SG2 = 0.75, as well as zA −zB ′ = 0.5 m,
zB − zC ′ = −0.25 m and zC − za = 0.375 m, we finally find

pgage,a = pa − patm = · · · = 4414.5 Pa = 4 kPa. (25)

It is because of the limited accuracy of zA − zB ′ = 0.5 m, that we must present the result
in Eq.(25) with only one significant digit.

3
To avoid confusion with the point labels, ρ1 and SG1 denote the density and specific gravity of the
blue liquid in the central tube, whereas ρ2 and SG2 correspond to the gray liquid in the tank on the left.
4
Please note how all terms on the left-hand side, except pa , cancel!

5
 3.D (self-study during Tutorial #1): The gate shown is 3 m wide and for analysis
can be considered massless. For what depth of water will this rectangular gate be in
equilibrium as shown? (3.65 (8th), 3.48 (9th))

Answer: In equilibrium, the sum of all moments around the hinge point must be
zero. We distinguish two moments: a net hydrostatic moment Mhyd exerted by the
water on the left (‘net’, so in excess to that exerted by the atmosphere on the right),
and an external moment, due to the weight of the object. We thus write
X
M = Mhyd + Mext = 0. (26)
The hydrostatic moment follows from surface integration of the hydrostatic force, mul-
tiplied with the local arm (distance to hinge point, for now denoted r), over the gate.
The external moment simply equals the product of the object’s weight and arm (noting
that the external force is effectively applied perpendicular to the gate). We thus write
Z
Mhyd = − r dFhyd , Mext = mgL, (27)

where m is the object’s mass, L is the distance from hinge point to where the cable is
attached, and we have used the sign convention that clockwise moments have a negative
sign5 .
Let us now turn to the hydrostatic moment:
ˆ To account for the atmosphere pressing against the water from the right, we must
use gage pressure:
dFhyd = pgage dA. (28)
ˆ Define a new coordinate system, y, conveniently aligned with the gate and with
its origin y = 0 chosen at the free surface6 , as shown in the figure above. The arm
in the above integration thus equals r = D − y, where D = d/ sin θ represents the
‘wetted gate length’7 with gate angle θ = 60◦ . Furthermore, introducing the gate
width W , it follows that
dA = W dy. (29)
5
Adopting the opposite sign convention is also fine, as long as you are consistent.
6
You could also let y point upward and have y = 0 coincide with the hinge point. This would of
course change the analysis, but should produce the same end result.
7
Please note that the bottom part of the double arrow in the figure is not fully correct: it should not
extend all the way down.

6
 ˆ Introducing the gate angle θ = 60◦ , the hydrostatic gage pressure at the gate is
then expressed in terms of y according to

pgage (y) = ρgy sin θ. (30)

Combining Eqs.(28)-(30), we immediately obtain

Z D
Mhyd = −W pgage (y)(D − y)dy
0
Z D
= −W ρgy sin θ(D − y)dy
0
Z D
= −ρgW sin θ y(D − y)dy
0
 D
1 2 1 3
= −ρgW sin θ 2 Dy − 3y
0

ρgW d3
=− . (31)
6 sin2 θ
Here we have used that D = d/ sin θ where d is the (yet unknown) water depth.
Finally, applying the equilibrium condition in Eq.(26), enables us to calculate the
unknown water depth. Substuting the results from Eq.(27) and Eq.(31)

ρgW d3
− + mgL = 0, (32)
6 sin2 θ
implying s
3 6mL sin2 θ
d= = 2.66 m = 2.7 m. (33)
ρW
Here we have used m = 2500 kg, L = 5 m, sin2 θ = 34 , ρ = 1000 kg m−3 , W = 3 m
Please note that the value of the gravitational acceleration drops out of the equation.
Furthermore, the answer is presented with two significant digits, but strictly speaking
the limited accuracy of both L and W warrants only one significant digit.

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 3.E (self-study during Tutorial #1): A sphere of 25 mm radius made from material of
specific gravity of SG = 0.95, is submerged in a tank of water. The sphere is placed over
a hole of 1.88 mm radius in the tank bottom. When the sphere is released, determine
whether it stay on the bottom of the tank or float to the surface. (3.106 (8th), 3.81
(9th), 3.46 (10th))

Answer: Whether the sphere will stay on the bottom of the tank or float to the
surface, depends on whether the effective buoyant force on the sphere (upward) exceeds
the sphere’s weight (downward) or not.
The net force (positive when pointing upward) is the difference between the effective
buoyancy (i.e., the buoyancy of a submerged sphere minus the lost upward pressure due
to the hole in the tank bottom) and the sphere’s weight:

Fnet = Fbuoy,sphere − Fbuoy,loss − Fweight , (34)

in which

Fbuoy,sphere = ρw gVsphere = ρw g 43 πR3 , (35)

Fbuoy,loss = pgage,bot Abot = ρw gHπa2 . (36)

Fweight = SGρw gVsphere = SGρw g 43 πR3 . (37)

Here, we have used that Vsphere = 43 πR3 and that Abot = πa2 . Furthermore, the
buoyancy loss is controlled by the gage pressure at the tank bottom, pgage,bot = ρw gH,
because the atmospheric pressure acts both at the free surface and at the bottom of the
tank.
Substituting Eqs.(35)-(37) into Eq.(34) gives

Fnet = ρw g 43 πR3 − ρw gHπa2 − SGρw g 43 πR3

= ρw g (1 − SG) 43 πR3 − Hπa2

 

= −0.0496 N < 0. (38)

Here we have used that ρw = 1000 kg m−3 , g = 9.81 m s−2 , 1 − SG = 0.05, R = 0.025 m
and a = 0.00188 m.
Since the net force is negative, and thus pointing downward, the sphere stays at the
bottom of the tank.

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 3.F (extra self-study after Tutorial #1): A container with two circular vertical
tubes of diameters d1 = 39.5 mm and d2 = 12.7 mm is partially filled with mercury.
The equilibrium level of the liquid is shown in the left diagram. A cylindrical object
made from solid brass is placed in the larger tube so that it floats, as shown in the right
diagram. The object is D = 37.5 mm in diameter and H = 76.2 mm high. Calculate the
pressure at the lower surface needed to float the object. Determine the new equilibrium
level, h, of the mercury with the brass cylinder in place. (3.17 (8th), 3.14 (9th))

Given: Container of mercury with vertical tubes of known diameter, brass cylinder of
known dimensions introduced into larger tube, where it floats. Parameter values:
d1 = 39.5 mm, d2 = 12.7 mm, D = 37.5 mm,

H = 76.2 mm, SGHg = 13.55, SGbrass = 8.55.

Find:
(a) pressure on the bottom of the cylinder
(b) New equilibrium level, h, of the mercury

Solution method: We analyze a free body diagram of the brass cylinder, and apply
the hydrostatics equation, as well as conservation of mass.

Governing equations:
The following equations relationships are needed:
ˆ Vertical forces on brass cylinder are in equilibrium:
P
Fz = 0.
dp
ˆ Hydrostatic pressure equation: dz = −ρg.
ˆ Definition of specific gravity (for both brass and mercury): ρ = SGρw
ˆ Mass conservation of displaced fluid: 1 2
4 πD x = 41 π(d21 − D2 )h + 14 πd22 h.
Vertical forces on the cylinder (cylinder’s weightand the buoyant force from the mercury)
are in equilibrium, from which the (gage) pressure pbot at the bottom of the brass
cylinder can be determined:
X
Fz = pbot 41 πD2 − ρbrass g 14 πD2 H = 0. (39)
such that
pbot = ρbrass gH = SGb ρw gH (40)

= 8.55 × 1000 kg m−3 × 9.81 m s−2 × 76.2 · 10−3 m = 6.39 kPa (gage) (41)

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This is gage pressure, because the atmosphere also acts on top of the brass cylinder. We
now have completed the first part of this exercise (part a).
The pressure pbot at the bottom of the cylinder, as derived in Eq.(40), must be
generated by a column of mercury h + x in height, i.e.

pbot = ρHg g(h + x) = SGHg ρw g(h + x) = SGbrass ρw gH, (42)

so
SGbrass
h+x= H (43)
SGHg
The value of x can be found by realizing that the volume of mercury in the system
remains constant (conservation of mass). Therefore:
2
1
4 πD x = 14 π(d21 − D2 )h + 41 πd22 h, (44)

which can be rearranged into an expression for x:

"   2 #
d1 2 d2
x= −1+ h. (45)
D D

Combining Eq.(43) and Eq.(45) now allow us to solve for h:

SGbrass D2
h= H
SGHg d21 + d22

8.55 (37.5 mm)2

= × × 76.2 mm = 39.3 mm, (46)
13.55 (39.5 mm)2 + (12.7 mm)2

with the final answer presented in three significant digits.

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 3.G (extra self-study after Tutorial #1): Water rising on the left side of a gate
causes it to open automatically (by rotating clockwise) for a certain water height. You
may neglect the weight of the gate. Please find the depth D1 above the hinge at which
the gate begins to open. (3.63 (8th), 3.46 (9th))

Answer: For a system that is on the verge of becoming unstable, the moment
exerted by the water on the gate must be zero. This moment is actually the sum of the
moments: (i) that exerted by the water pressure on the vertical part of the gate, Mhyd,1
(see F1 in the figure below), and (ii) that exerted by on the horizontal part of the gate,
Mhyd,2 (F2 in the figure below). We thus write

Mhyd = Mhyd,1 + Mhyd,2 = 0. (47)

Importantly, because the tank is open to the atmosphere, we must use gage pressure!

First, we calculate the moment on the vertical part of the gate. To this end, we
define a new coordinate system, with y as vertical coordinate taken as zero at the hinge
point and positive upwards. This new coordinate serves as the ‘arm’ in our moment
integration. The moment around the hinge can be expressed as:
Z Z D D
2
− 13 y 3 = − 61 ρgW D3 .
1
Mhyd,1 = − pgage y dA = −ρgW (D−y)y dy = −ρgW 2 Dy 0
0
(48)
Here we have introduced the gate width W (will drop out later) so that dA = W dy,
used that pgage (y) = ρg(D − y) and applied the sign convention that clockwise moments
are negative.

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 Next, we turn to the moment on the horizontal part of the gate, for which we find8
Z Z L
2 L
= 21 ρgW DL2 .
1 
Mhyd,2 = pgage,bot x dA = ρgW D x dx = ρgW D 2x 0
(49)
0

Here we have introduced a new coordinate x, pointing horizontally to the right along
the gate with its origin x = 0 precisely at the hinge point (not shown in the figure).
Substituting Eq.(48) and Eq.(49) into Eq.(47) gives

− 16 ρgW D3 + 12 ρgW DL2 = 0, (50)

such that D2 = 3L2 , i.e. √

D= 3L = 2.6 m. (51)
Here we have presented the result (independent of ρ, g and gate width W ) in two
significant digits.

8
The result in Eq.(49) can also be immediately derived as follows. The hydrostatic pressure is constant
along the horizontal part (the water depth is not changing), with gage pressure pgage = ρgD. Hence,
the force F2 = pgage W L of the water pressure (upwards) acts halfway, i.e. with arm 12 L. Multiplying of
force and arm gives the result in Eq.(49).

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 3.H (extra self-study after Tutorial #1): A canoe is floating in the water. The
cross-section of the canoe can be modelled as y = ax2 , where a = 3.89 m−1 (x and y
in meters). You may assume that the cross-section is constant over the length of the
canoe with a top width w = 0.6 m. The length of the canoe is: L = 5.25 m. Find an
expression relating the total mass of the canoe (including contents such as people) to the
distance d between the top of the canoe and the water level. Determine the maximum
allowable total mass without swamping the canoe. (3.85 (8th), 3.65 (9th))

Answer: At any value of d the weight of the canoe and its contents is balanced
by the net vertical force of the water on the canoe. It is the hydrostatic gage pressure,
pgage = ρgh, that provides the buoyant force on the canoe.
Z Z xmax
Fvert,hyd = p dAy = 2L ρgh dx, where h = (H − d) − y. (52)
0

Here we have defined H = yend = ax2end = a( 12 w)2 = 0.35 m as the total height of the
canoe. Further, we have used that the canoe’s shape is both uniform over its length L
and symmetric in x. To determine the upper bound of integration, xqmax , we remember
H−d
that y = ax2 and set h = 0, so y = H − d and, therefore, xmax = a . Hence, the
vertical force is given by
Z xmax
Fvert,hyd = 2ρgL [(H − d) − ax2 ]dx
0
" 3/2 #
(H − d)3/2 a

H −d
= 2ρgL √ −
a 3 a

4ρgL(H − d)3/2
= √ . (53)
3 a

This upward force should be balanced by the weight Fweight = mg of the canoe, in which
m is the (yet unknown) total mass of the canoe and the people in it. We thus find

4ρL(H − d)3/2
m= √ . (54)
3 a

The limit for no swamping is d = 0, for which we find m = 734 kg. This leaves us no
margin, so if alternatively we set d = 0.050 m we obtain m = 583 kg. Clearly the answer
strongly the depends on the safety margin applied!

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