UNIT VII - Endocrinology – Introduction – Classification of hormones based on chemical nature (peptides and proteins, amino acid derivatives
and steroid
hormones) and their mode of action with examples. Major human endocrine glands (pituitary, adrenal, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid and pancreas), their
hormones and disorders. Neuroendocrine secretions, regulation of endocrine factors – hypothalamus, hypophysial axis, feedback mechanisms.
Endocrinology – Introduction - (endocrine + ology) is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine
system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones.
Hormones - Hormones are chemical messengers (may be of proteins, lipids or amines), secreted from special cells of
endocrine glands and maintain the physiological activities (breathing, metabolism, reproduction, sensory perception,
movement, sexual development and growth) very specifically on target cells through circulation and disintegrated
after action. A hormone is a chemical made by specialist cells, of endocrine gland, transported by blood stream to cells
and organs of the body. It is often referred to as a 'chemical messenger.
Classification of hormones, mechanism of hormone action
There are two major classes of hormones
1. Proteins, Peptides, and modified amino acids
2. Steroids.
The following points will highlight the five categories of classification of hormones. The categories are:
1. According to Chemical Nature
2. On the basis of Mechanism of Action
3. According to Nature of Action
4. According to Effect
5. On the basis of Stimulation of Endocrine Glands.
Category 1. According to Chemical Nature:
(a) Steroid Hormones:
These are made up of lipids, which basically derived from cholesterol, e.g. Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone etc.
(b) Amine Hormones:
These hormones are made up of amines. Amines are building blocks of hormones. Amine hormone is derivative of the
amino acid tyrosine.
e.g. T3, T4, epinephrine, norepinephrine.
(c) Peptide Hormones:
These hormones are made up of few amino acid residues only and present as simple linear chain.
e.g. Oxytocin and vasopressin both consist of only 9-amino acid residues only.
(d) Protein Hormones:
These hormones are also made amino acid residues which are much more in numbers. They represent primary,
secondary and tertiary configuration.
e.g. Insulin, glucagon, STH etc.
(e) Glycoprotein Hormones:
Glycoproteins make up these hormones. These hormones are glycoprotein in nature. They are conjugated protein
where carbohydrate groups are mannose, galactose, fucose etc.
e.g. LH, FSH, TSH etc.
(f) Eicosanoids Hormones:
The eicosanoids are small fatty acid derivatives with a variety of arachidonic acid.
e.g. Prostaglandins.
Category 2. On the Basis of Mechanism of Action:
(a) Group I hormones:
These hormones bind to intracellular receptors to form hormone-receptor complexes (HRC), through which their
biochemical functions are mediated. These hormones are lipophilic in nature and are derivatives of cholesterol (except
T3 and T4). They are found in circulation in association with transport proteins and possess relatively longer half-lives
(hours or day). e.g. Estrogen, Progesterone, Testosterone, T3, T4 etc.
(b) Group II hormones:
These hormones bind to cell surface (plasma membrane) receptors and stimulate the release of certain molecules,
namely the second messengers which in turn, perform the biochemical functions. Thus, hormones themselves are
lipophobic in nature, usually transported in the free form and possess short half-lives (in minutes).
Group II hormones are subdivided into three categories on the basis of chemical nature of second messengers:
(i) The second messenger is cAMP. e.g. ACTH, FSH, LH etc.
(ii) The second messenger is phospholipid/inositol/Ca++.
e.g. TRH, GnRH, Gastrin etc.
(iii) The second messenger is unknown.
e.g. STH, LTH, Insulin, Oxytocin etc.
Category 3. According to Nature of Action:
(a) Local Hormones:
These hormones have got specific local effects by paracrine secretion.
e.g. Testosterone.
(b) General Hormones:
These hormones are transported by circulation to the distal target organ/tissue.
e.g. Insulin, Thyroid hormone etc.
Category 4. According to Effect:
(a) Kinetic Hormones:
These hormones may cause pigment migration, muscle contraction, glandular secretion etc.
e.g. Pinealin, MSH, Epinephrine etc.
(b) Metabolic Hormones:
These hormones mainly changes the rate of metabolism and balance the reaction.
e.g. Insulin, Glucagon, PTH etc.
(c) Morphogenetic Hormones:
These hormones are involved in growth and differentiation.
e.g. STH, LTH, FSH, Thyroid hormones etc.
Category 5. On the Basis of Stimulation of Endocrine Glands:
(a) Tropic Hormones:
These hormones stimulate other endocrine glands for secretion.(A large number of endocrine glands secrete
hormones in response to these hormones)
e.g. TSH of pituitary stimulates secretion of thyroid gland.
(b) Non-tropic Hormones:
These hormones exert their effect on non-endocrine target tissues.
e.g. Thyroid hormone increases the O2 consumption rate and metabolic activity of almost every cells.
Mechanism of hormone action
The release of hormones into the bloodstream is the pathway by which they are carried to their target sites.
Depending on whether the hormone is lipid soluble (permeable to plasma membrane) or water soluble (bind to cell
surface receptor), the target cell will be triggered. In target cells, liposoluble hormones bind to water soluble
hormones. When a receptor is stimulated, a change in activity occurs, which may trigger a feedback loop with the
original hormone producing cells.
Water soluble hormone – A lipophilic hormone binds to a receptor on, or within, its plasma membrane to initiate an
intracellular signalling cascade.
Hormone – an enzyme that is released by a cell and sends out a chemical message to its counterparts in other parts of
the body.
Lipid soluble hormone – Lipophilic hormone that passes through cell membranes, binds to intercellular receptors and
controls the expression of genes.
Communication between cells is enabled by hormones, which are chemical messengers. A hormone is a protein that is
secreted by glands of the endocrine system that regulates many other processes and systems, including reproduction
and development.
Major human endocrine glands - Endocrine system overview
Endocrine system function
Endocrine system organs
Endocrine system hormones
Conditions that can affect the endocrine system
Feedback mechanism of hormone regulation
The feedback mechanism performs the functions of a regulator that aids and helps in maintaining the
balance of hormones in the body. It keeps a check on the amount of the hormone released and keeps
the amount of hormone released to be constant.
The hormone feedback mechanism is defined as the mechanism that is used to maintain the hormone
balance in the blood / body. The increase or decrease in the concentration of that hormone can
sometimes stimulate and increase the secretion of that hormone or inhibit the secretion of the hormone.
It’s called feedback.
Feedback mechanisms control the most hormones that are secreted by endocrine glands. A feedback
mechanism is a loop with the help of which a product feeds to regulate its own production. There may be
two types of feedback mechanism that are named as positive feedback and negative feedback.
Positive feedback stimulates and enhances the secretion and/or production of the hormone. On the
other hand, the negative feedback prevents and inhibits the hormone from being secreted. Most
mechanisms for hormone feedback constitute negative loops. Negative feedback helps and maintains
the hormone concentration within a limited range.
For instance, the glucose level in the blood increases when we eat food that is rich in carbohydrate. The
pancreas synthesizes and releases insulin as the amount of blood glucose rises. It will stimulate the
blood glucose absorption by the cells. This is the process by how the blood glucose level drops.
Now, when insulin remains present in the blood, more and more glucose get transported into the cell and
glucose in the blood scarcity. To prevent these scarcities of glucose, the low glucose level inhibits the
insulin secretion in the blood produces negative feedback.
The hormone feedback system is defined as the process by which the hormone balance in the blood /
body is maintained. A change in the concentration of that hormone may either stimulate and increase or
inhibit and stop the secretion of the hormone.
Negative Feedback Mechanism
It occurs when the original effect of the stimulus is reduced by the output. Negative feedback
mechanism normalizes the things when they start becoming too extreme. For e.g., the thyroid gland is
regulated by a negative feedback mechanism. The hormone secreted by the hypothalamus stimulates
the pituitary gland to release thyroid stimulating hormone. In turn, the thyroid stimulating hormone
triggers the thyroid gland to release its hormones. When the thyroid level increases, the hormones stop
the secretion of TRH by the hypothalamus and secretion of TSH by the pituitary gland by the feedback
mechanism. The secretion of hormones by the thyroid gland is inhibited without the stimulation of TSH.
The thyroid hormone levels fall very low. The insulin secretion by the pancreas is also controlled by the
negative feedback mechanism.
Positive Feedback Mechanism
It occurs when the original effect of the stimulus is enhanced by the output. The conditions become
extreme in this mechanism. Milk secreted by a mother’s mammary glands is one of the examples of
positive feedback mechanism. While suckling, the nerve sends signals from the nipple to stimulate
the pituitary gland to secrete prolactin. In turn, prolactin triggers the mammary glands to secrete milk. As
the baby suckles more milk, more prolactin is secreted and more milk is produced.
The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is a complex system of neuroendocrine pathways and feedback
loops that function to maintain physiological homeostasis. Abnormal development of the hypothalamic-
pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis can further result in long-term alterations in neuropeptide and
neurotransmitter synthesis in the central nervous system, as well as glucocorticoid hormone synthesis in
the periphery. Together, these changes can potentially lead to a disruption in neuroendocrine,
behavioral, autonomic, and metabolic functions in adulthood. In this review, we will discuss the
regulation of the HPA axis and its development. We will also examine the maternal-fetal hypothalamic-
pituitary-adrenal axis and disruption of the normal fetal environment which becomes a major risk factor
for many neurodevelopmental pathologies in adulthood, such as major depressive disorder, anxiety,
schizophrenia, and others.
Hypothalamic–neurohypophyseal system are the four major neuro endocrine system Hypothalamo-
hypophysal axis means the connecting portion between hypothelamas and both anterior and posterior
pituitary which consists of nerve fibers, blood vessels , neurons .
Endocrine factors
Some of the factors that affect endocrine organs include puberty, aging, pregnancy, the environment,
genetics and certain diseases and medications, including naturopathic medicine, herbal supplements,
and prescription medicines such as opioids or steroids.
