1 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Human Reproduction
 Human beings are unisexual.
 The growth, maintenance and function of the gonads are regulated by
gonadotropins secreted from anterior lobe of pituitary gland.
 The organs which neither produce gametes nor secrete sex hormones but
perform important functions in reproduction are called secondary sex organs.
 The latter include the prostate, seminal vesicles, vas deferentia and penis in
males, and the fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina and mammary glands in
females.
 The characters which distinguish the male from the female externally are
called accessory or external sex character. They are also called secondary
sex characters.
Secondary Sexual Features in Man and Woman
Character Man Woman
General build up More muscular Less muscular
Aggressiveness More marked Less marked
Hair growth
(i) Facial Beard, moustache present Absent
(ii) Axillary Present Present
(iii) Pubic Hair distribution more lateral and Upward growth not so, marked and
upwards towards umbilicus is more, horizontal
(iv) Chest Present Absent
Mammary glands Undeveloped Well developed
Skin More hairy and coarse Less hairy and coarse
Shoulder Broad Not broad
Pelvis Not broad More broad
Larynx More apparent Less apparent
Voice Low pitched High pitched
Breathing Predominantly abdominal Predominantly thoracic
BMR High due to greater activity Not so, high as compared to man

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

2 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 The male reproductive system of mammals consists of a pair of testes, several

accessory glands, a duct system and a mating organ called the penis. Testis
is the primary male sex organ. It produces spermatozoa and secretes the male
sex hormone testosterone.
 The human testis measures about 5 cm, 3 cm and 2.5 cm, respectively, in
length, thickness and width. It is covered by thick, fibrous, connective tissue
called tunica albuginea.

 In man, both testes normally remain suspended in a pouch called scrotum

outside the abdominal cavity. This keeps the testes at a low temperature
than the body temperature(about 2°C below)-this is essential for the
maintenance and normal functioning of the spermatogenic tissue of the testes.
 Testes descend in the scrotal sac when foetus is about 7 months old and this
occurs under the influence of FSH and testosterone.
 If testes fail to descend, than the condition is called cryptorchidism that
leads to sterility. Scrotum remains connected with the abdomen or pelvic
cavity by the inguinal canal. Blood vessels, nerves and conducting tubes pass
through inguinal canal.
 Cremaster muscles and connective tissue form spermatic cord and surround all
structures passing through inguinal canal. Cremaster muscles and dartos
muscles of the scrotal sac help in the positioning of testes.
 Whenever the outside temperature is low, these contract to move the testes
close to the abdominal cavity/pelvic cavity. When outside temperature is high,
3 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

these relax moving the testes away from the body.

 In some seasonally breeding mammals, testes descend into the scrotum during breeding
season but ascend back into the abdomen in the non-breeding season. e.g. rats and
bats.
ANATOMY OF TESTIS
 Each testis contains numerous tiny, highly convoluted tubules, called
seminiferous tubules. They constitute the spermatogenic tissue of the testis.
 Cells lining these tubules give rise to spermatozoa which are released into the
lumen of the tubule.

Structure of testis
 In between spermatogenic cells, Sertoli or sustentacular or nurse cells are
present which provide nourishment to the developing spermatozoa and regulate
spermatogenesis by releasing inhibin to check FSH overactivity.
 The other functions of sertoli cells include
(i) Provide nourishment to the developing spermatozoa,
(ii) Absorb the parts being shed by developing spermatozoa
(iii) Release anti mullerian factor (AMF) to prevent development of mullerian
duct/oviduct
4 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

(iv) Release of androgen binding protein (ABP).

 Groups of polyhedral cells called Interstitial cells or Leydig cells, are located
in the connective tissue around the seminiferous tubules.
 They constitute the endocrine tissue of the testis. Leydig cells secrete
testosterone into the blood.
 Seminiferous tubules unite to form several straight tubules called tubuli recti
which open into irregular cavities in the posterior part of the testis.
 It is highly anastomosing labyrinth of cuboidal epithelium lined channels called
rete testis.
 Several tubes called vasa efferentia arise from it and conduct spermatozoa
out from the testis (Seminiferous tubule to vasa efferentia form
intratesticular genital duct system).

A part of transverse section of mammalian testis

5 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Midline sagittal section through male pelvis

 The extra testicular duct system consists of tubes which conduct sperms from
the testes to the outside.
 It starts with vasa efferentia which arise from each testis and becomes
confluent to form a folded and coiled tube called epididymis behind each
testis.
 The epididymis consist of 3 parts: (i) Caput, (ii) Corpus, (iii) Cauda. The
epididymis stores the sperms temporarily.
 From cauda epididymis, a partially coiled tube called vas deferens ascends
into the abdomen through inguinal canal, passes over the urinary bladder,
receives the duct from the seminal vesicle behind the urinary bladder to from
an ejaculatory duct.
6 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

The male genital system seen from behind

 Before entering prostate, the ductus deferens dilates to form ampulla. The
final portion of ampulla passes through the prostate to open into the urethra
shortly after its origin from the urinary bladder.
 The urethra receives the ducts of the prostate and cowper's glands, passes
through the penis and opens to the outside.
MALE EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGAN
PENIS
 This is the copulatory organ of man. It is a cylindrical and erectile,
pendulous organ suspended from pubic region in front of scrotum.
 It remains small and limp (= flaccid) but on sexual arousal, it becomes long,
hard and erect, ready for copulation (=coitus or intercourse). Erect human
penis, on an average is about 15 cm long.
7 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

T.S. of penis
 The penial mass is itself encased in a fibrous sheath, called tunica
albuginea. The interior of penis is mostly formed of three cylindrical cords of
spongy, erectile (= cavernous) tissue.
 Two of these cords are thicker and situated parallely on right and left
sides, forming the thick part of penis that remains in front when penis is
limp, but becomes superio-posterior when penis is erect.
 These two cords are called corpora cavernosa.
 The fibres of tunica albuginea surround both cords jointly and form a
separate sheath around each cord. Some fibres form a partition, called
septum penis, between these cords.
 The third, smaller cord form that part of penis which remains inferio-anterior
in erect penis. Urethra runs through this cord. Hence, this cord is called
corpus urethrae or spongiosum.
 The extended part of corpus spongiosum is enlarged, forming a bulged,
conical structure called glans penis. The surface of glans is formed of a thin,
smooth and shiny, hairless skin.
8 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 The base line of glans is referred to as neck of the penis. The loose skin of
penis folds over and is retractile on glans. It is called foreskin or prepuce.
 At the tip of glans penis is the slit like external urethral orifice or meatus
by which urethra opens out and discharges urine or semen.
 Prepucial glands, present in the skin of penis neck, secrete a white sebaceous
substance, called smegma. Microbial infection in smegma causes irritation.
GLANDS
 Seminal vesicles - These are paired, tubular, coiled glands situated behind
the urinary bladder. They secrete viscous fluid which constitute the main
part of the ejaculate. Seminal fluid contains fructose, citric acid, inositol
and postaglandins.
 Prostate gland - It is a chestnut shaped gland and is a collection of 30-40

tubulo-alveolar glands which lies at the base of the bladder and surrounds
the base of the urethra. It contributes an alkaline substance to the seminal
fluid.
 The substance of prostate help the sperms to become active and counteract
any adverse effects of urine on sperms. The prostatic fluid provides a
characteristic odour to the seminal fluid. Prostate gland secretes -citrate ion,
calcium, phosphate ion, and profibrolysin.
 Bulbourethral glands or Cowper's glands - The two bulbourethral glands are
pea-sized structures lying adjacent to the urethra at the base of penis.
These secrete a viscous lubricant.
 The duct system, accessory glands and penis are secondary male sex organs.
Their growth, maintenance and functions are promoted by testosterone
secreted by Leydig cells.
9 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 On the other hand, the growth, maintenance and functions of seminiferous

tubules and Leydig cells are regulated, respectively by FSH and ICSH of
anterior pituitary.
SEMEN
 Semen is a mixture of sperms and the secretions of the seminiferous tubules,
seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands.
 The average volume of semen in an ejaculation is 2.5-5 ml, with a sperm
count (concentration) of 200 to 300 million. For normal fertility, at least 60

percent sperms must have normal shape, size and at least 40 percent of
them must show vigorous motility. When the sperm count falls below 20

million/ml, the male is likely to be infertile.

 Semen has a slightly alkaline pH of 7.2-7.7. The prostatic secretion gives
semen a milky appearance, whereas fluids from the seminal vesicles and
bulbourethral glands give it a sticky consistency.
 Semen provides transportation medium and nutrients to sperms. It neutralizes
the hostile acidic environment of the male urethra and the female vagina.
(Prostatitis - Inflammation of prostate gland.)

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a duct system,
consisting of a pair of fallopian tubes (oviduct), an uterus, cervix and
10 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

vagina. A pair of mammary glands are accessory genital glands.

OVARIES

 The ovary is the primary female sex organ. It produces ova and secretes the
female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone that are responsible for the
development of secondary female sex characters and regulate cyclic changes
in the uterine endometrium.
 The human ovaries are small, almond-like flat bodies of about 3 cm in
diameter.

1. Location. Ovaries are located near kidneys and remain attached to the lower
abdominal cavity through mesovarium.
2. Structure. The free surface of the ovary is covered by a germinal epithelium
made of a single layer of cubical cells. This epithelium is continuous with the
11 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

mesothelium, called peritoneum. The epithelium encloses the ovarian stroma.

The stroma is divided into two zones-a peripheral cortex and an inner
medulla. Cortex is covered by a connective tissue, called tunica albuginea.
The cortex contains numerous spherical or oval, sac-like masses of cells, known
as ovarian follicles. The medulla consists of loose connective tissue, elastic
fibres, blood vessels and smooth muscle fibres.

A section of human ovary

OVARIAN FOLLICLE
 The ovarian follicle carries a large, centrally placed ovum, surrounded by
several layers of granular cells (follicular granulosa or discus proligerus or
cumulus oophorus). It is suspended in small cavity the antrum.
 Antrum is filled with liquid folliculi. The secondary oocyte in the tertiary
folicle forms a new membrane called zona pellucida. The follicle bulges on the
surface of the ovary.
 Such a follicle is called the mature Graafian follicle (after De Graaf, who
12 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

reported them in 1672).

CORPUS LUTEUM
 The ovum is shed from the ovary by rupturing the follicle. The release of
ovum is called ovulation and occurs nearly 14 days before the onset of the
next menstrual cycle.
 After the extrusion of the ovum, Graafian follicle transforms into corpus
luteum. Corpus luteum is filled with a yellow pigment, called lutein.
 Corpus luteum grows for a few days and if the ovum is fertilized and
implantation occurs, then it continues to grow. But if the ovum is not
fertilized, then corpus luteum persists only for about 14 days.
 It secretes progesterone. At the end of its functional life, the corpus luteum
degenerates,and becomes converted to a mass of fibrous tissue, called corpus-
albicans (white body) that remains as a scar in the ovary throughout the life
of female.
FALLOPIAN TUBES (OVIDUCTS)
 There are one pair, long (about 10 cm), ciliated, muscular and tubular
structures that extend from ovaries to uterus. Each one is suspended by
mesosalpinx. Each fallopian tube is differentiated into four parts :
(i) Infundibulum. The part of oviduct closer to the ovary is the funnel shaped
infundibulum. The edges of infundibulum possess finger like projections called
fimbriae. Fimbriae help in collection of the ovum after ovulation. Infundibulum
opens in abdominal cavity by an aperture called osteum.
(ii) Ampulla. The infundibulum leads to a wider part of the oviduct called
ampulla.
(iii)Isthmus. It is middle, narrow and ciliated part of the oviduct.
(iv) Uterine part. It is inner and narrow part which opens in the upper part of
13 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

uterus.
It is involved in the conduction of ovum or zygote towards the uterus by
peristalsis and ciliary action. (Fertilization occurs at the junction of ampulla
and isthmus).
 Uterus. It is a large hollow, muscular, highly vascular and pear shaped
structure present in the pelvis between the bladder and rectum. It is
suspended by a mesentery, mesometrium. It is formed of three parts.
(i) Fundus. It is upper dome shaped part above the opening of fallopian tubes.
(ii) Body. It is middle and main part of uterus.
(iii)Cervix. It is lower, narrow part which opens in the body of uterus by internal
os and in vagina below by external os. It is formed of most powerful sphincter
muscle in the body.
Its wall is formed of outer peritoneal layer called perimetrium; middle
muscular myometrium made of smooth muscle fibres, and inner highly vascular
and glandular endometrium.
It is the site of foetal growth during pregnancy. It also takes part in
placenta formation and helps in pushing the baby out during parturition.
VAGINA
 It is a long (7.5 cm), fibro-muscular tube. It extends backward in front of
rectum and cervix to the vestibule. It is vascular tube internally lined by
mucus membrane and is raised into transverse folds called vaginal rugae.
 In the virgin female, vaginal orifice is closed by a membranous diaphragm
called hymen which becomes centrally perforated at puberty for the
discharge of menstrual flow (or menses).
 Vagina acts both as copulation canal as it receives the sperms from penis
14 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

during copulation and birth canal during parturition.

FEMALE EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGAN

 Vulva. It is external genitalia of female. It has a depression, the vestibule, in front of
anus. Vestibule has two apertures-upper external urethral orifice of urethra and lower
vaginal orifice of vagina.
 Mons pubis : Is a fleshy and fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair.
 Labia majora : It is a pair of fleshy folds which extend from the mons pubis and
surround the vaginal opening.
 Labia minora : Is another pair of tissue folds below the labia majora.
Both labia majora and labia minora are provided with sebaceous glands.
 Hymen : Is a membrane that partially covers the vaginal opening. It gets
torn during the first coitus.
 Clitoris : Is a tiny, erectile, finger-like structure present at the upper
junction of the two labia minora above the urethral opening. The fold of skin
that covers clitoris is called prepuce. Clitoris is homologous to penis (as both are
supported by corpora cavernosa).
15 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

The external genitalia in the female

GLANDS
 Vestibular Glands: These are of two types-greater and lesser. Greater
vestibular or Bartholin's glands are a pair of small reddish yellow glands on
each side of vaginal orifice and secrete alkaline secretion for lubrication and
neutralising urinary acidity.
 Lesser vestibular glands or paraurethral or skene's glands are small mucus
glands present between urethral and vaginal orifices.
MAMMARY GLAND :
 Each mammary gland consists of 15-25 lobules of the compound tubuloalveolar
type. These lobules secrete milk to nourish the newborn babies.
 Each lobe is separated from the others by dense connective and adipose
tissue and represents a gland. From each lobe, excretory lactiferous ducts
emerge independently in the nipple, which has 15-25 openings, each about
0.5 mm in diameter.
16 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 However, the histological structure of mammary glands vary, depending on sex,

age and physiological state.
Path of milk ejection:
Mammary alveolus → Mammary duct → Ampulla → Lactiferous duct → Nipple
Homology Between Male and Female Reproductive System
Female Reproductive
Male Reproductive System
System
Scrotum/Scrotal Sac Labia majora
Penis Clitoris
Glans penis Glans clitoridis
Prostate gland Parauretheral/skene's
Cowper's gland gland Bartholin's gland
17 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

EMBRYOLOGY
THE EVENTS IN HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Gametogenesis → Insemination → Fertilization → Implantation → Gestation →
Parturition

FORMATION OF GAMETES
 Sexual reproduction requires the fusion of two haploid gametes to form a
diploid individual. These haploid cells are produced through gametogenesis.
 As there are two types of gametes, the spermatozoa and ova, gametogenesis
can be studied under two broad headings: spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
 Spermatogenesis is the formation of spermatozoa, whereas oogenesis is the
formation of ova. Both spermatozoa and ova originate from primordial germ
cells or PGCs, which are extra-gonadal in origin.
 In humans, the PGCs originate during early embryonic development from the
extra-embryonic mesoderm. Eventually, they migrate to the yolk sac
endoderm, and ultimately, to the gonads of the developing embryo, where
they undergo further development.
18 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

SPERMATOGENESIS

 Spermatozoa are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.

Spermatogenesis is the process of maturation of reproductive cells in the
testes.
 Spermatogenesis includes two stages (i) formation of spermatids and (ii)
metamorphosis of spermatids. Spermatids are formed by three phases namely
phase of multiplication (mitosis), phase of growth and phase of maturation
(meiosis).
 During phase of multiplication, the primordial germ cells divide repeatedly by
mitosis to form diploid spermatogonia.
 During phase of growth, the spermatogonium enlarges in size to form primary
spermatocyte and prepares to undergo maturation division.
 During phase of maturation, the primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I
giving rise to two haploid (n) secondary spermatocytes. The secondary
spermatocytes undergo meiosis II resulting in the formation of four spermatids.
 Transformation of spermatid to sperms is termed spermiogenesis. A spermatid
19 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

is non-motile. It has organelles like mitochondria, Golgi bodies, centrioles,

nucleus etc.
 During spermiogenesis, the weight of gamete is reduced along with
development of locomotory structures. Nucleus becomes compact forming the
major part of head of spermatozoa,
 Golgi complex of spermatid give rise to acrosome. Acrosome forms a cap in
front of nucleus containing lytic agent which dissolves egg membranes during
fertilization.
 Acrosome of mammalian sperm produces sperm lysins. The two centrioles of the
spermatids become arranged one after the other behind the nucleus. The
anterior one is known as the proximal centriole.
 The proximal centriole is usually located on the neck of spermatozoan. During
fertilization, it is introduced in to the egg and is required for the first
cleavage.
 The posterior centriole is known as the distal centriole and gives rise to the
axial filament of the sperm. Mitochondria from different parts of spermatid
to get arranged in the middle piece around the axial filament.
 Mitochondria in the middle piece provide energy to the sperm for locomotion.
 A typical mammalian sperm is flagellated, consisting of four parts namely
head, neck, middle piece and tail.
 The human sperm was first seen by Hamm and Leeuwenhoek. Tail-less, (non-
flagellate) 'amoeboid' sperm is found in the roundworm Ascaris.
20 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis

 Spermatogenesis is under the control of
endocrine hormones. Hypothalamus produces
gonadotropin releasing hormone or GnRH.
 It acts on anterior pituitary to produce
gonadotropins, ICSH and FSH, ICSH
interstitial cell stimulating hormone acts
on interstitial or Leydig cells which
produce testosterone.
 Testosterone is essential for formation of
sperms, atleast spermiogenesis part by
Sertoli cells. Under the influence of FSH, Sertoli cells develop androgen
binding protein (ASP).
 The latter helps in concentrating testosterone in the seminiferous tubules.
 Excess of testosterone inhibits LH/ICSH by anterior pituitary and GnRH
production by hypothalamus.
 Sertoli cells also produce a glycoprotein called inhibin. Inhibin suppresses FSH
21 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

synthesis by anterior pituitary and GnRH synthesis by hypothalamus.

 Thus normal release of testosterone is under negative feed back control.

OOGENESIS

 Oogenesis is the process of maturation of reproductive cells in ovary. Oogenesis

starts before birth. In 25 weeks old female foetus, all the oogonia are
produced.
 Oogenesis is basically similar to spermatogenesis. It includes phase of
multiplication, phase of growth and phase of maturation.
 During the phase of multiplication, the primordial cells in the ovary divide
mitotically to form oogonia (egg mother cell). Each oogonium divides
mitotically to form two primary oocytes.
22 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 Primary oocytes undergo growth, the growth phase during oogenesis is

comparatively longer.
Primary oocytes, begin the first step of Meiosis-I and proceed up to
diakinesis.
 These oocytes resume their development at puberty. The primary oocyte (2n)
completes meiosis-I producing two haploid cells (n), the larger one is secondary
oocyte and the smaller one is first polar body.
 Secondary oocyte starts Meiosis-II and proceeds upto metaphase-II only.
Further development will start only after arrival of spermatozoa.
 Entry of sperm restarts the cell cycle by breaking down M PF (M-phase
promoting factor) and turning on APC (Anaphase promoting complex).
Completion of meiosis II results in the formation of functional egg or ovum and
a second polar body.

Schematic representation of (a) Spermatogenesis; (b) Oogenesis

Differences between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
Characters Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
Site of In the seminiferous tubules In the ovaries.
occurrence of testes.
Total period It is a continuous process It is a discontinuous process and
and completed in 74 days completed in a minimum 12-15
23 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

in humans. yrs.
Growth phase Of shorter duration Of longer duration
Yolk synthesis No yolk is synthesized in Vitellogenesis occurs in growth
growth phase phase.
Nuclear Nucleus becomes condensed Nucleus is bloated due to increase
changes by the loss of superfluous in nucleoplasm.
materials.
Number of One spermatogonium forms 4 One oogonium forms only one
gametes haploid sperms. haploid ovum.
Polar bodies Not formed. Two or three polar bodies are
formed.
Site of It is started and completed It is started inside the ovary but
completion within the testes. is generally completed outside
the ovary into oviduct.
Size of Sperm is much smaller than Ovum is much large than oogonium.
gametes formed spermatogonium.
Hormonal control of Oogenesis
 In response to production of GnRH or gonadotropin releasing hormone, anterior pituitary
secretes two hormones, FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone).
 FSH stimulates follicular growth and maturation of oocyte. Granulosa cells of developing
ovarian follicle produce estrogen.
 In presence of high titre of both estrogen and LH, ovulation occurs. High concentration
of estrogen inhibits secretion of both FSH and GnRH.
24 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 This is negative feedback control LH helps in converting ruptured Graafian

follicle into corpus luteum.
 The latter secretes progesterone which prepares the uterus to receive
fertilised ovum. High concentration of progesterone inhibits further release of
LH from anterior pituitary and GnRH from hypothalamus.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

 Menstrual cycle is the cyclic changes in the reproductive tract of primate (Man,
Monkey and Apes) females. Menstruation is the periodic shedding of the endometrium
of uterus with bleeding. In healthy women, menstruation occurs at intervals of about 28

to 29 days.
 Menarche is the starting of menstruation in girls that occurs at about 13 years of her
age. Menstrual cycle consists of menstrual phase, proliferative phase (follicular phase)
and secretory phase (luteal phase).
 Proliferative phase (5th to 14th day of menstrual cycle) consists of growth of
endometrium of uterus, fallopian tube and vagina. In ovary, a Graafian follicle secretes
estrogen during this phase.
25 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 Estrogen is the hormone active during proliferative phase. The ovum is released from
the follicle near the end of proliferative phase, i.e., 14th day or midway during
menstrual cycle.
 Ovulation occurs under the influence of LH from pituitary. The subsequent 14 days in
which corpus luteum is active is referred to as the secretory phase.
 Progesterone secreted by corpus luteum is active during secretory phase. The uterine
endometrium and glands grow further during secretory phase.
 At the end of secretory phase, corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans in the
ovary, progesterone secretion falls, the overgrown uterine endometrium breaks down and
mensturation takes place.
 Menstrual cycle is controlled by FSH, LH, estrogen and progesterone. The menstrual cycle and
menstruation remain suspended during pregnancy and lactation. Menopause (climacteric) is the
period of life when menstruation naturally stops.
 Menopause occurs in females at the age of around 45-50 years. Ability to reproduce
is lost in the female after menopause.

Menstruation Follicular phase Luteal

phase Next cycle
Diagrammatic presenation of various events during a menstrual cycle
26 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Various Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

Phase of Cycle Hormonal Changes Tissue Changes
Ovarian Endometrial Pituitary Ovary Ovarian Endometrial
Follicular Menstrual FSH and LH secretion Estradiol and Primary follicles grow Outer two-thirds of
(days 1-4) low progesterone endometrium is shed
with accompanying
bleeding
Follicular Proliferative FSH slightly higher than Estradiol Follicles grow; Graafian Mitotic division
(days 5-13) LH secretion in early secretion follicle develops (due to increases thickness of
follicular phase rises (due to FSH stimulation) endometrium; spiral
FSH arteries develop (due
stimulation of to estradioi
follicles) stimulation)
Ovulatory Proliferative LH surge (and increased Oestradiol Graafian follicle ruptures No change
(day 14) FSH) stimulated by secretion falls and secon dary oocyte is
positive feedback from extruded into uterine
oestradiol tube
Luteal Secretory LH and FSH decrease Progesterone Development of corpus Glandular
(days 15-28) (due to negative and luteum (due to LH development in
feedback from steroids) oestrogen stimulation); regression endometrium (due to
secretion of corpus luteum. progesterone
increase, stimulation)
then fall

ESTROUS CYCLE
 The estrous cycle consists of cyclic changes in the female reproductive system
of non-primate mammals. There is no menstruation at the end of estrous cycle.
 The estrogen level in blood increases resulting strong sex urge in the female.
This is called "period of heat".
 The estrous cycles run only during breeding season. The estrous cycles remain
suspended in female during non-breeding season. The suspension of estrous
cycles is called the state of anestrum.
 Those animals that have only a single estrous during the breeding season are
called monoestrous, e.g., dog, fox, deer, bat, etc.
 The animals that have a recurrence of estrous during breeding season are
called polyestrous, e.g., Mouse, squirrel, cow, sheep, pig, horse etc.
27 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Concept Builder
Types of Egg
The eggs are classified on the basis of amount and distribution of yolk in
them. Yolk is the reserve food material in the cytoplasm of egg. It may be
formed of phospholipids, proteins, or lipid and carbohydrates. The process of
formation of yolk and its deposition in egg. is called vitellogenesis.
1. Based on amount of yolk.
(i) Alecithal -Eggs without yolk e.g. human egg.
(ii) Microlecithal -The eggs with very little yolk, e.g. sea urchin, starfish.
(iii) Mesolecithal -The eggs containing moderate amount of yolk, e.g. frog.
(iv) Megalecithal (or Macrolecithal) -The eggs containing very large amount of
yolk, e.g. reptiles, birds.
2. Based on distribution of yolk.
On the basis of distribution of yolk, the eggs are classified as follows
(i) Isolecithal -The yolk is uniformly distributed throughout the cytoplasm of egg,
e.g., Branchiostoma, Herdmania.
(ii) Telolecithal-The eggs in which the yolk is concentrated towards one pole i.e.,
vegetal pole & nucleus along with major part of cytoplasm is displaced is
animal pole e.g. , amphibians.
(iii) Centrolecithal -Yolk concentrated in centre of the egg with cytoplasm
surrounding it, e.g. insects.
Cleidoic Eggs
Eggs of reptiles and birds are insulated by albumen, membranes and shell.
The calcareous shell present around the eggs of bird is mainly made up of
calcium carbonate (94%) and is secreted by uterus (shell glands).
28 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Chalazae are the suspensory ligaments of the yolk in birds's egg.

Egg Membranes
There are three types of egg membrane which can be present around the
egg
(i) Primary egg membrane: It is formed around the plasma membrane of egg
secreted by ovum itself e.g, Jelly envelope (Echinoderms). Vitelline membrane
(Mollusca, amphibians & birds), zona radiata (Shark, some amphibians).
(ii) Secondary egg membrane: It is formed around an egg by the follicle cells of
the ovary e.g., chorion around egg of insect; corona radiata, granulosa &
theca layers in human.
(iii) Tertiary egg membranes: These are formed by the oviducts & other
accessory parts of maternal genital tract while the egg is passing from the
ovary to the exterior. e.g., the albumin, shell membrane & outermost
calcareous shell of reptiles & birds.
Types of Cleavage
The mode of cleavage is determined by the amount of yolk and its
distribution.
(a) Holoblastic: The cleavage in which the segmentation lines pass through the
entire egg , dividing it completely. It occurs in alecithal, microlecithal and
mesolecithal eggs; e.g. frog, human egg etc. It is of two types equal
holoblastic example Amphioxus and Marsupials; unequal holoblastic e.g., lower
fishes and amphibians.
(b) Meroblastic: The lines of segmentation do not completely pass through the
egg and remain confined to a part of the egg. Such type of cleavage is
found in megalecithal eggs as the yolk provides resistance to the cleavage,
e.g. insects, birds, reptiles. Meroblastic cleavage may be (i) Superficial which
29 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

occurs in centrolecithal eggs, e.g . insects, or (ii) discoidal, found in eggs of

birds.
Patterns of Cleavage
Cleavage is the successive mitotic cell divisions of the egg & can be in
following pattern
(i) Radial Cleavage: Successive clevage plane cuts straight through the egg e.g.
Synapta paracen rotus.
(ii) Biradial Cleavage: When the first three division planes do not stand at
right angles to each other: Ctenophora
(iii)Spiral Cleavage: There is a rotational movement of cell parts around the egg
axis leading to displacement of mitotic spindle with respect to symmetrically
disposed radii e.g. turbellarians, nematoda, rotifera, annelida, all mollusc
except cephalopods.
(iv)Bilateral Cleavage: Mitotic spindles and cleavage planes remain bilaterally
arranged with reference to the plane of symmetery e.g. tunicates,
Amphioxous, amphibia and higher mammals.
(v) Meridional Cleavage: When cleavage furrow bisects both the poles of egg
passing through animal vegetal axis, the plane of cleavage is called
meridional cleavage.
30 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Patterns (planes) of cleavage

According to the concept of potency, cleavage can be

(i) Indeterminate/Regulative eggs, the fate of different parts of egg or its

blastomeres is not predetermined or blastomeres have no characterstic position
& alterable fate e.g. Echinoderms and vertebrates.
(ii) Determinate/Mosaic eggs. Every part of fertilized egg has a definite fate,
so that fate of every blastomere is determined from beginning i.e. , produces
the complete embryo only if all the blastomeres remain together. e.g.,
Nematoda, Mollusca (Dentalium).
Morula
Cleavage results in the formation of solid mass of cells called Morula as it
looks like a mulberry.
Blastula
 Blastula is the embryonic stage next to morula.
 It contains a fluid-filled cavity called blastocoel surrounded by one or more
layers of cells, the blastomeres.
 The blastula with blastocoel is called coeloblastula, e.g. frog.
 In certain animals, the blastula is solid and is termed stereoblastula e.g.,
Cnidaria, Nereis & some molluscs.
 The blastula formed as a result of superficial cleavage is called superficial
blastula, e.g. insects.
 Discoblastula is disc shaped blastula formed as a result of discoidal cleavage,
e.g. birds.
Gastrula
 Gastrula is formed by gastrulation. Gastrulation is the process of the
formation of gastrula from the blastula. Gastrula is the embryonic stage of
31 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

development in which the germinal layers are formed. Gastrulation involves

movement of cells.
 The movements are called morphogenic movements. They include epiboly
(descending of dividing cells to cover other cells) , emboly (upward movement
of dividing cells underneath the other cells), involution (inward migration of
blastomeres to go into the blastocoel), invagination (tucking in of blastula
wall) , and delamination (separation of a sheet of cells from blastula) .
 Archenteron is the cavity which occurs inside the gastrula, and is the future
alimentary canal. It opens to the outside through blastopore which closes later.
Foetal Membranes (Extra embryonic membranes)
The developing foetus is enclosed by three membranes, amnion, chorion and
allantois.
(i) Amnion is formed from mesoderm outside and ectoderm inside. Space between
amnion and foetus is called amniotic cavity and it contains amniotic fluid.
(ii) Chorion is formed from ectoderm externally and mesoderm inside. Alongwith the
allantois it participates in the formation of placenta. Space between amnion
and chorion is embryonic coelom .
(iii)Allantois consists of mesoderm outside, and endoderm inside. It extends to fuse
with chorion and forms allanto-chorion which gives rise to foetal part of
placenta.
32 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

THE EVENTS IN MAMMALIAN REPRODUCTION

FERTILISATION
 Ovum is released in the secondary oocyte
stage (arrested in metaphase-II). Due to
ciliary current produced by
fimbriae of oviduct, ovum is drawn in
through ostium.
 It reaches ampulla, the site of
fertilisation, by the ciliary action of
ciliated columnar epithelium lining of oviduct.
 A human sperm can live for many weeks in male genitial duct. Once
ejaculated sperm can live alive only for 24 to 48 hours outside the body.
Sperms move in the liquid medium secreted by female genital tract (1.5-3.0
mm/minute).
 Prostaglandins of semen help in movement of spermatozoa and finally reach
ampulla portion of the oviduct.
 Capacitation of sperm occurs in the female genital system due to
(1) Removal of membrane cholesterol present over acrosome, weakening the
membrane cover.
(2) Dilution of decapacitation factors.
(3) Entry of Ca2+ into sperms causing rapid whiplash motion of the tail.
 Fusion of gametes/Syngamy: The various steps involve :
Acrosomal reaction: Number of sperms adhare to the surface of egg covers
(Agglutination). The acrosome starts releasing its hydrolytic enzymes (sperm
lysins).
 It includes,
33 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

(a) Hyaluronidase: Dissolves the hyaluronic acid responsible for cementing of

follicle cells or granulosa cells.
(b) Corona digesting enzyme (CDE) : Dissolves corona radiata.
(c) Zona lysin/Acrosin : Digests the zona pellucida. It involves zona pellucida
compatibility reaction determined by 'fertilizin' protein over zona pellucida
and 'anti-fertilizin' in case of sperm.
 Contact of acrosome stimulates development of an outgrowth by the oocyte
called fertilization cone or cone of reception.
 As the sperm head gets in contact with the fertilization cone, it cause
opening up of Na+ channel to cause depolarization of membrane (fast block
to check polyspermy) and Ca2+ wave inside the egg.
 Sperm and egg membranes dissolve. Male pronucleus & proximal centriole of
sperm enter the cytoplasm of egg & rest part is left out.
 Ca2+ wave causes extrusion of cortical granules (cortical reaction) and zona
reaction makes the zona pellucida impervious to second sperm by destroying
sperm receptors.
 Cortical reaction and zona reaction constitute slow block to check polyspermy.
 Entry of sperm causing breakdown of metaphase promoting factor (MPF)
and turning on anaphase promoting complex (APC). This results in oocyte
completing its meiosis -II.
 Male and female pronuclei approach each other and finally mixing up of
paternal and maternal chromosomes (Amphimixis) occur resulting in the
formation of zygote/ synkaryon.
34 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
It includes cleavage, blastulation, implantation, gastrulation and
organogenesis.
Cleavage:
 First cleavage is completed after 30 hours of fertilization. Cleavage furrow
passes from animal-vegetal axis as well as centre of zygote (Meridional
cleavage).
 It divides the zygote into two blastomeres (Holoblastic cleavage). Second
cleavage is completed after 60 hours of fertilization.
 It is also meridional but at right angle to the first one. It is completed
earlier in one of the two blastomeres resulting in transient 3-celled stage.
 Third cleavage is horizontal forming 8 blastomeres. lt is slightly unequal.
35 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Thereafterthe rate and pattern of cleavage is not specific.

Morula:
 Cleavage results in solid ball of celled Morula with 16 cells (occasionally 32
cells). Zona pellucida is still present as the outer cover. Morula undergoes
compaction.
 The outer/peripheral cells are small/flat with tight junction while the inner
cell mass slightly large round and with gap junction.
 Morula descends slowly towards uterus in 4-6 days and corona radiata
detaches during this period.
BLASTULATION OR BLASTOCYST FORMATION
 Endometrium secretes a nutrient fluid and its mucosal cells become enlarged
with stored nutrients. As the morula enters uterus, it obtains enriched supply
of nutrients.
 Outer peripheral cells enlarge and flatten further. They form trophoblast or
trophoectoderm. Trophoblast secretes a fluid into the interior. It creates a
cavity called blastocoel.
 The inner cell mass now comes to lie on one side as embryonal knob.
 With the formation of blastocoel, morula is converted into blastula which is
called blastocyst in mammals because of different nature of surface layer
and eccentric inner cell mass.

Development of blastocyst
36 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 Due to pressure of growing blastocyst a slit is produced in zona pellucida.

The growing blastocyst comes out. At times it gets broken into two parts
which then give rise to identical twins.
 Trophoblast cells in contact with embryonal knob are called cells of Rauber.
Area of embryonal knob represents animal pole.
 The opposite side is embryonal pole. Soon embryonal knob shows rearrangement
to form embryonal disc. Cells of trophoblast layer divide periclinally.
 This makes trophoblast two layered, outer syncytotrophoblast and inner
cytotrophoblast. The two layers later form chorion, amnion and foetal part of
placenta.

IMPLANTATION
 It is embedding of the blastocyst into
endometrium of uterus.
 Blastocyst comes in contact with the
endometrium in the region of
embryonal knob or embryonic disc. It
adheres to the same.
 The surface cells of trophoblast
secrete lytic enzymes which cause corrosion of endometrial lining.
 They also give rise to finger-like outgrowths called villi. Villi not only help in
fixation but also absorption of nourishment.
 Implantation causes nutrient enrichment, enlargement of cells and formation
of uterine part of placenta called decidua (L. deciduus-falling off).
 Decidua has three regions (i)Decidua Basalis (Basal Decidua, Tunica
Serotina). Part of decidua underlying the chorionic villi and overlying the
myometrium. (ii) Decidua Capsularis (Decidua Reflexa). It lies between
embryo and lumen of uterus. (iii) Decidua Parietalis (Decidua Vera).
37 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 It is part of decidua that lines the uterus at a place other than the site of
attachment of embryo.
 Trophoblast secretes hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG).
Detection of hCG in the urine is the basis of pregnancy/Gravidex test.
 hCG maintains the corpus luteum beyond its normal life. It continues to
secrete progesterone which prevents menstruation and maintains the uterine
lining in nutrient rich state.
 Progesterone induces the cervical glands to secrete viscous mucus for filling
the cervical canal to form a protective plug.
 Progesterone is also called pregnancy hormone as it is essential for
maintenance of pregnancy. The hormone is secreted by placenta as well.

GASTRULATION
 It is characterised by movement of cells in small masses or sheets so as to form
primary germinal layers. There are three primary germinal layers -endoderm,
ectoderm and mesoderm.
 The cell movements that occur during gastrulation are called morphogenetic
movements since they lead to initiation of morphogenesis. The product of
gastrulation is called gastrula.

Formation of endoderm, and amniotic cavity

38 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

FORMATION OF PRIMARY GERMINAL LAYERS

 Cells of the inner cell mass or embryonal knob get rearranged to form a flat
embryonic or germinal disc. The latter differentiate into two layers, outer
epiblast of larger columnar cells and inner hypoblast of smaller cuboidal cells.
 Gastrulation begins with the formation of the primitive streak on the surface
of the epiblast.

1. Cross section through the cranial, region of the streak at 15 days showing
movement of epiblast cells. The first cells to move inward displace the
hypoblast to create the definitive endoderm.
2. Once definitive endoderm is established, inwardly moving epiblast forms
mesoderm.
3. Cells remaining in the epiblast form ectoderm. Thus the epiblast is the source
of all the germ layers in the embryo.

FATE OF GERM LAYERS

39 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

PLACENTA
 Placenta is an organ which connects the foetus and uterine wall.
 It is contributed by both-maternal as well as foetal part although there is no
blending of the maternal and foetal blood supplies, the placenta acts as an
ultrafilter, soluble inorganic and organic materials nutrients, hormones,
antibodies against diphtheria, small pox, scarlet fever, measles, etc. can pass
from the mother to the foetus.
40 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 Placenta acts as an endocrine gland and synthesises large quantities of

proteins and some hormones, such as human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG),
chorionic thyrotropin, chorionic corticotropin, chorionic somatomammotropin,
estrogens and progesterone.
 The hCG stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone until the end
of pregnancy. In addition, it secretes relaxin that facilitates parturition by
softening the connective tissue of the symphysis pubica.
 The metabolic activity of the placenta is almost as great as that of the
41 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

foetus itself. The umbilical cord connects the foetus to the placenta.
 During the first trimester (first 3 months) of pregnancy, the basic structure
of the baby is formed.
 This involves cell division, cell migration, and the differentiation of cells into
many types found in the baby. During this period, the developing baby-
called foetus is very sensitive to anything that interferes with the steps
involved.
 Virus infection of the mother e.g., by Rubella (German measles) virus or
exposure to certain chemicals, may cause malformations in the developing
embryo. Such agents are called teratogens (monster forming).
 By 3 months, all the systems of the baby have been formed, at least in a
rudimentary form.
 From then, development of the foetus is primarily a matter of growth and
minor structural modifications.
 The foetus is less susceptible to teratogens.
Table-I: Important Developmental Events in the Human Embryo
Time from Event
Fertilization
24 hours Embryo reaches two-celled stage.
3 days Morula stage is reached.
7 days Blastocyst begins to implant in the uterus.
2.5 weeks Notochord and neural plate are formed; tissue that will give rise to heart is
differentiating; blood cells are forming in yolk sac and chorion.
3.5weeks Neural tube forming; primordial eye and ear visible; pharyngeal pouches
forming; liver differentiating; respiratory system and thyroid gland beginning
to develop; heart tubes fuse, bend, and begin to beat; blood vessels are laid
4 weeks down.
2 months Limb buds appear; three primary vesicles of brain formed.
Muscles differentiating; embryo capable of movement; gonad distinguishable
as testis or ovary; bones begin to ossify; principal blood vessels assume final
3 months positions; embryo become foetus; nervous system develops; bones enlarge.
Sex can be determined by external inspection; notochord degenerates; lymph
42 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

glands develop.
4 months Face begins to look like human; lobes of cerebrum differentiate; eye, ear, and
nose look more 'normal'; rapid gorwth.
Third trimester Lanugo* appears, later it is shed; neurons become myelinated; tremendous
growth of body.
266 days (from Birth
conceptions)

* Lanugo is the soft hairy covering of the foetus which begins to be shed
before birth.

PARTURITION
 The gestation period of the human is about 38 weeks/266 days followed by
birth. The process of giving birth to a baby is called parturition.
 It starts with rise in estrogen/progesterone ratio, increase in the level of
oxytocin secretion by both, mother and foetus.
 It includes 3 stages.
1. Dilation Stage:
 The uterine contraction starts from top and occur at long intervals (once
every thirty minutes). This forces the baby to push its head against cervix.
 As a result, cervix gets dilated with vagina also showing similar dilation.
Dilation of cervix increases the stimulus for oxytocin secretion, further
increasing the strength and frequency of contractions (1-3 every minute).
 With continued powerful contractions, the amnion ruptures and the amniotic
fluid flows out through vagina.
2. Expulsion Stage:
 With further increase in the intensity of uterine and abdominal contraction,
the baby comes out through cervix and vagina with head coming out first.
 It may take 20 -60 min. Umbilical cord is cut. The infant's lungs expand and
43 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

it begins breathing. This requires a major switch over in the circulatory

system.
 Blood flow through the umbilical cord ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale
ceases; the adult pattern of blood flow through the heart, aorta and
pulmonary arteries begins.
 In some infants, the switch over is incomplete, and blood flow through the
pulmonary arteries is inadequate. Failure to synthesise enough nitric oxide
(NO) is one cause.
3. After Birth: Within 10-15 minutes after delivery, the placenta and the
remains of the umbilical cord which is called 'after birth' is expelled out.

LACTATION
 Although estrogen and progesterone are essential for the physical
development of the breasts during pregnancy, a specific effect of both these
hormones is to inhibit the actual secretion of milk. Conversely, the hormone
prolactin has exactly the opposite effect on secretion: promotion of milk
secretion.
 This hormone is secreted by the mother's anterior pituitary gland and its
concentration in her blood rises steadily from the fifth week of pregnancy
until birth of the baby, at that time it has risen to 10 to 20 times the
normal nonpregnant level.
 In addition, the placenta secretes large quantities of human chorionic
somatomammotropin, which probably also has lactogenic' properties, thus
supporting the prolactin from the mother's pituitary during pregnancy.
 The fluid that is secreted in the last few days before and first few days
after parturition is called colostrum, it contains essentially the same
concentrations of proteins and lactose as milk but almost no fat.
44 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

Ejection (or "Let-Down") Process in Milk Secretion

 Milk is secreted continuously into the alveoli of the breasts, but milk does not
flow easily from the alveoli into the duct system and, therefore, does not
continually leak from the breast nipples.
 Instead, the milk must be ejected from the alveoli into the ducts before the
baby can obtain it. This is caused by a combined neurogenic and hormonal
reflex that involves the posterior pituitary hormone oxytocin.
 When the baby suckles, sensory impulses are transmitted through somatic
nerves from the nipples to the mother's spinal cord and then to her
hypothalamus, there causing nerve signals that promote oxytocin secretion at
the same time they cause prolactin secretion.
 The oxytocin is carried in the blood to the breasts, where it causes
myoepithelial cells (that surround the outer walls of the alveoli) to contract,
thereby expelling the milk from the alveoli into the ducts.

Summary of Human Pregnancy from Fertilization to Birth of the Baby

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3
Cleavages start to form a blastocyst The three basic layers of the Woman will not have menses. This
after 4-5 days of fertilization. More embryo develop, namely ectoderm, may be the first sign that she is
than 100 cells are formed. mesoderm and endoderm. No pregnant. Appearance of backbone,
Implantation takes place after 6-9 research is allowed on human Neural tube and spinal cord (first
days of fertilization. embryos beyond this stage. organs) starts. Embryo is about
2mm long.
Week 4 Week 5 Week 6
Heart, blood vessels, blood and gut Brain developing. Limb buds and Eyes and ears start their
start forming. Umbilical cord digits start appearing. Embryo is development.
developing. Embryo about 5 mm about 8 mm long.
long. Heart sounds can be heard
through stethoscope.
Week 7 By week 12 By week 20
All major internal organs Foetus fully formed, with all organs, Hair begin to grow, including
45 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

developing. Face forming. Eyes muscles, bones, toes and fingers. eyebrows and eyelashes. First
have some colour. Mouth, tongue, Sex organs start their development. movement of the foetus is felt.
hands and feet start appearing. External genital organs start
Foetus is 17 mm long. appearing.
By week 24 By week 26 By week 28
Eyelids separate. Body is covered Has a good chance of survival if Baby moving vigorously. Responds
with fine hairs. Eye-lashes are born prematurely. to touch and loud noises.
formed. Swallowing amniotic fluid and
urinating.
By week 30 By week 40 (9 months)
Usually lying head down in the Birth
uterus and it is ready for birth. Baby
is 240 mm from head to bottom.

Concept Builder
Types of Placenta
(a) On the basis of structure, the placentae are of following types:
(i) Epitheliochorial - Placenta with all the six barriers between foetal and
maternal blood; e.g. Horse, Ass.
(ii) Syndesmochorial - Uterine epithelium breaks down; only five barriers left; e.g.
Cow, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat, Camel.
(iii) Endotheliochorial - Uterine epithelium and connective tissue eroded; only four
barriers left; e.g. Tiger, Lion, Cat, Dog.
(iv) Haemochorial - Placenta with only three barriers, the maternal part of
placenta eroded; e.g. Human, Ape, Lemurs.
(v) Haemo-endothelial-All barriers except endothelium of foetal part of placenta
get eroded e.g. Rat, Rabbit.
46 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

(b) On the basis of nature of uterine wall after parturition, the placenta may
be :
(i) Non-deciduous-no part of uterine portion of placenta is broken off, e.g. Horse,
Ass.
(ii) Deciduous-a portion of uterine tissue called decidua is detached and passed
out at birth, e.g. most of the mammals.
(iii) Contra deciduous– even the foetal part of placenta is retained and gets
absorbed to provide nourishment, e.g. Talpa, Parameles.

(c) On the basis of distribution of villi on the surface, the placentas are
categorised into six types :
(i) Diffuse placenta-Villi distributed uniformly all over the surface. e.g. Horse,
Pig .
(ii) Cotyledonary-the villi form tufts which fit into corresponding areas, the
caruncles in uterine part of placenta, e.g.' Cow, Buffalo, Sheep.
(iii) Intermediate-villi occur singly as well as in tufts, e.g. Camel, Giraffe
(iv) Zonary-villi arranged in two transverse bands, e.g. Tiger, Lion, Cat, Dog,
Elephant.
(v) Discoidal-When the villi are confined to a disc-like area, e.g. Rat, Rabbit,
Bat.
47 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

(vi) Metadiscoidal-The placenta in which the villi are initially distributed

uniformly all over the surface but later on get confined to a disc-like area
fitting into a corresponding depression on the uterine wall. That is, the
placenta is diffuse at first but later on becomes discoidal, e.g. Human beings
and Apes.

Concept Builder
1. Amenorrhoea: Non occurrence of menses.
2. Inguinal hernia: Protrusion of intestinal loop into scrotum
3. Spontaneous ovulator : Ovulation with any external induction.
4. Orchidectomy: Removal of testes. It produces eunuchs.
5. Induced ovulator : Ovulation after copulation e.g., Rabbit.
6. Hysterectomy: Surgical removal of uterus.
7. Unejaculated sperms: Sperm production is a continuous process. unejaculated
sperms are absorbed in vas deferens.
8. Corpus luteum : Persists for two weeks in case of non-pregnancy and four
months when pregnancy has taken place.
9. Cryptorchidism: Failure of testes to descend in to scrotum.
10. Spermatogenesis takes about 74 days.
11. Androgenesis: Development in which the embryo has only paternal chromosomes,
male parthenogenesis.
12. Gynogenesis : Development in which the embryo has only female chromosomes,
female parthenogenesis.
13. Mictic females produce: haploid eggs which can be fertilized by males.
Amictic females produce diploid eggs which develop parthenogenetically. A
diploid egg may be produced by -autofertilization (polar body fuses with
secondary oocyte) or Restitution: Chromosomes of both secondary oocyte and
polar bodies arrange at equator during 1st cleavage e.g. hymenopterans
48 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

(bees and wasps)

14. Paras: Fertile, can have pregnancy
15. Nulliparous: Women with no children
16. The most common method by which a baby comes out at parturition is left
anterior oblique with head coming out first.
17. Fetal hemoglobin differs from adult hemoglobin because it has  and 
chains. It has higher affinity for O2 and shifts HbO2 dissociation curve to left.
18. 1st Menses is called menarche while the onset of menses and development of
secondary sexual characters is called puberty. Dysmenorrhoea - painful
menses.
19. In the three trimesters of preganancy. (0-12 weeks 12-22 weeks and 22-
28 weeks) if the baby dies from 0-22 weeks by natural or man-made
causes it is called abortion because embryo is not called viable.
20. After 20-22 weeks abortion is banned in India.
21. The number of eggs at the time of birth in a young female undergoes
drastic reduction by a process called atresia.
22. Gynandromorphs: An individual possessing both male and female parts.
23. Menopause: Stopping of menses, average age 51 years. Post menopausal
effects includes increased risk to heart attack due to decreased estrogens,
hot flushes, irritability, fatigue, anxiety decreased strength of bones.
24. Implantation takes place in 7 days. Conceptus remains in fallopian tube for
3-4 days and then by 7-9 days implantation occurs.
25. Vasectomy : Cutting of vas deferens.
26. Gynaecomastia: Males developing breasts due to hormonal imbalances.
Gestation: The period of development of the young in the womb of the mother
is called gestation. Maximum weight gain and maximum growth rate of foetus
takes place between 7-9 months of pregnancy.
27. Human Egg 0.1 mm in diameter or 100 µm.
49 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

28. Human sperm 0.06 mm or 60 µm long

29. Largest sperm 5.8 cm (20 times longer than the body of fly) in Drosophila
bifurca.
30. Ectopic Pregnancy : It is the growth of the foetus outside the uterus,
commonly inside the fallopian tube. Hence also called as tubal pregnancy. By
6th week as growing foetus may cause rupturing of fallopian tube hence its
immediate surgical removal.
31. Animal cloning: First performed by Willmut and Campbell (1997). The first
cloned animal was sheep Dolly (Feb. 13, 1997). Egg cell was taken out
when maturation promoting factors (MPF) were maximum. It was denucleated.
A nucleus from udder cell arrested in non-dividing growth phase (GP) by
serum starvation was inserted in the denucleated egg.
32. Spermatozoa of turbellarians and Ascaris (nematode) and sporozoans lack
acrosome.

33. Non flagellate sperms are found in Ascaris, Procambarus (Crayfish)

Callinectes (blue crab).
34. Biflagellate spermatozoa are found in Opsanus (toad fish)
35. Ascaris megalocephola univalens shows the process of chromosome dimunition. In
these spiral clevage of egg takes place and each cell except the one giving
rise to gametes looses a part of chromosome set. Other e.g. -Gall midges
(Mayetiola) and fungus grats (Wachtiella)
36. Compact ovaries are found in -cyclostomes, elasmobranchs, osteichthyes fishes,
reptiles, birds and mammals.
37. Saccular ovaries are found in amphibians.
38. Lampbrush chromosomes : Found in oocytes of amphibians. They resemble the
brushes used to clean the chimneys in London. They store extra information
for survival of egg. They consist of two homologous chromosomes held together
50 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

at chiasmata present in (diplotene) prophase cell stage

39. Polytene chromosomes : Found in the interphase stage of cells of salivary
glands of chromosomes of Drosophila larvae. They exhibit gene amplification.
40. Fecundity: Animals potential capability to produce off springs.
41. Fertility -Animal's actual capability to conceive or induce conception.
42. Precocial young ones: ungulates and jackrabits -hair and open eyes, ability
to move around.
43. Altricial: young ones are naked blind and helpless.
44. Estrous cycle: When females are most receptive to male (not in man) -phases
-Estrus -Metaestrus -Diestrus -Proestrus. It occurs in non-primates.
45. Rut cycle: Testicular activity in the majority of mammals, is a seasonal
event as is the associated period of sexual excitement.
46. F.R. Lillie gave the fertilization theory. Fertilizin of egg of one species
locks with antifertilizin of same species (1914).
47. Sperms are decapacitated in epididymis where they mature. They are
recapacitated in vaginal fluid / uterus.
48. Spermetogensis : Is the process of formation of haploid sperm from the diploid
primary spermatocyte in the testis.
49. Spermiogenesis : Is the process of transformation of haploid spermatid to the
functional sperm.
50. Spermiation : Is the process of releasing the mature sperms from the
semniferons tubuels.
51. Insemination : Is the process of introduction of sperms (or semen) in the female
reproductive system.
52. Semination : Is the process of ejaculation of semen from the male reproductive
system.
53. Menarche : Is the process of start of menstrual cycle in the life of a female
51 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

human at puberty.
54. Follicular phase : Primary follicles in the ovary grow to become mature follicle
(Graafian follicle).
55. Luteal phase : The process of transformation of ruptured Graafian follicle
into corpus luteum.
56. Capacitation : Is the process of activation of sperms in the female
reproductive system after their ejaculation into it.
52 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

SUMMARY
 Human are sexually reproducing and viviporous.
Male reproductive system :
(i) Pair of testes, (ii) Accessory ducts, (iii) Accessory glands, (iv)
External genitalia
 Each testis has about 250 testicular lobules.
 Each lobule contains about 2-3 seminiferous tubules.
 Semineferous tubule is lined by spermatogonia and sertoli cells.
 Spermatogoia produce sperms by meiosis while sertoli cells provide
nutrition.
 Leidig's cells present outside the seminiferous tubules secrete
androgens.
 Male external genital organ is called penis.
Female reproductive system :
(i) Pair of ovaries, (ii) Female accessory ducts (Pair of oviducts,
Uterus, Vagina), (iii) External genitalia, (iv) Pair of mammary glands
 Ovaries produce ovum and some steroid hormones.
 Uterus is made of perimetrium, myometrium and endometrium.
 Spermatogenesis is the formation of sperms in the testis.
 Normal sperm has head, neck, middle piece and tail.
 Oogenesis is the formation of ovum in the ovary.
 The reporductive cycle of female primates is called menstrual cycle.
 Only one ovum is released per menstrual cycle from either of the two
ovaries.
 The cyclical changes during menstural cycle are controled by pituitary
and ovarian hormones.
53 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH - 9844532971

 Fertilization occurs at the junction of isthmus and ampulla of oviduct

to form zygote.
 Sex of the embryo is determined by presence of X or Y chromosome.
 Zygote divides mitotically to form blastocyst that gets implanted in
the uterus resulting in pregnancy.
 After gestation period of nine months the foetus get ready for
delivary.
 Process of child birth is called parturition which is controlled by cortisol,
estrogens and oxytocin.
 Mammary glands secrete milk after child birth to feed the new born.
 Colostrum is thick, pale yellow coloured milk secreted by mammary
glands, soon after the birth of the baby for few days.
 Colostrum is rich in antibodies that can provide passive immunity to the
delicate new-born.