WAVE OPTICS

The study of light and its properties using ‘wave theory of light’ is called wave optics.
• Descartes gave the corpuscular model of light and derived Snell’s law. The corpuscular
model further developed by Isaac Newton (in his book OPTICKS).
• The corpuscular model predicted that if the ray of light (when light travels from rarer
medium to denser medium bends towards the normal) then the speed of light would be
greater in the second medium (denser) which is experimentally proved wrong. It was shown
experimentally by Foucault that speed of light in denser medium (water) is less than
rarer medium (air).
• In 1678 Christiaan Huygens put forward the wave theory of light.
• Maxwell put forward the Electromagnetic wave theory of light. Maxwell had developed
a set of equations describing the laws of electricity and magnetism and using these
equations he derived the wave equation from which he predicted the existence of
electromagnetic waves.
• Maxwell said light must be an electromagnetic wave and it is associated with the
changing electric and magnetic fields, which results in the propagation of
electromagnetic waves (or light waves) even in vacuum.

Newtons Huygen’s wave Maxwell’s EM Einstein’s quantum de-Broglie’s dual

corpuscular theory theory wave theory theory theory of light
(i) Based on (i) Light travels in a (i) Light travels in (i) Light is produced, (i) Light
Rectilinear hypothetical the form of EM absorbed and propagates both
propagation of light medium ether (high waves with speed propagated as as particles as
elasticity very low in free space packets of energy well as waves
density) as waves c=
1 called photons
0 0
(ii) Light propagates (ii) He proposed that (ii) EM waves (ii) Energy associated (ii) Wave nature of
in the form of tiny light waves are of consists of with each photon E = light dominates
particles called longitudinal nature. electric and hc when light
hν = λ
Corpuscles. Colour Later on it was magnetic field interacts with
h = 6.6  10 −34 J - sec
of light is due to found that they are oscillation and light. The particle
different size of transverse they do not  = frequency nature of light
corpuscles require material  = wavelength dominates when
medium to travel the light interacts
with matter
(micro-scopic
particles )
Optical phenomena explained () or not explained () by the different theories of light
S. Phenomena Theory
No. Corpuscular Wave E.M. wave Quantum Dual
(i) Rectilinear Propagation     
(ii) Reflection     
(iii) Refraction     
(iv) Dispersion ×   × 
(v) Interference ×   × 
(vi) Diffraction ×   × 
(vii) Polarisation ×   × 
(vii) Double refraction ×   × 
(ix) Doppler’s effect ×   × 
(x) Photoelectric effect × × ×  
Wave Front:
A wave front is defined as surface of constant phase.
The locus of points which oscillate in the same phase is a wave front.
• The speed with which the wave front moves outwards is called the speed of the wave.
• The energy of the wave travels in a direction perpendicular to the wave front and this
direction is called a ray. Thus, a ray is a line perpendicular to a wave front.
• The wave front emitted by a point source of light is called spherical wave front.
• The wave front emitted by a linear source of light is called cylindrical wave front.
• At large distance from the source, a small portion of the spherical surface (or cylindrical
surface) can be considered as plane and it is called plane wave front.

Plane WF
Spherical WF
Cylindrical WF

Light ray Light rays

Point source
Line source

• In the case of spherical wave front and cylindrical wave front, the rays are either
converging or diverging and the source is at a finite (small) distance.
• In the case of plane wave front, the rays are parallel and source is at infinite (large)
distance.
(v) Every point on the given wave front acts as a source
of new disturbance called secondary wavelets. Which travel Point source
Secondary
in all directions with the velocity of light in the medium. wavelets
Primary Secondary
wave front wave front
• A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at
any instant gives the new wave front at that instant. This is called secondary wave
front

Note: ❑Wave front always travels in the forward direction of the medium.
❑Light rays is always normal to the wave front.
❑The phase difference between various particles on the wave front is zero.

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE:
Huygens Principle is the geometrical method of finding the shape and position of a wave
front at some instant from the known shape and position of the wave front at some earlier
instant.

Huygens principle is stated as follows:

• Each point on a wave front is a source of
secondary disturbance and the secondary
wavelets originating from these points
spread out in all direction with the speed
of the wave.
• The new wave front at any later time is
obtained by taking the tangential surface
in the forward direction to all the spheres
of secondary wavelets.

In Fig [1(a)], AB is the initial spherical wave front. Secondary wavelets originating from
every point on this wave front travel in all direction with the same speed v and in a time
t, they develop into a sphere of radius = vt. The tangential surface CD drawn to all
these spheres in the forward direction gives the shape and position of the new wave front
after a time t.

Fig [1(b)] represents the same process in the case of a plane wave front.
REFRACTION OF PLANE WAVES USING HUYGENS PRINCIPLE:
[Derivation of ‘Snell’s law of refraction’ for
the refraction at the plane surface using
Huygens principle]

PP’–Surface separating medium-1, medium-2.

v1 – speed of light wave in medium-1
v2 – speed of light wave in medium-2 & v1 > v2
n1 – Refractive index of medium 1
n2 – Refractive index of medium 2
AB – incident plane wave front
i – angle of incidence

Consider a plane wave front AB incident in medium-1 on the surface PP’.

According to Huygens principle, every point on the wave front AB is a source of secondary
wavelets. Let the secondary wavelet from B strike the surface PP’ at C in time .
Then BC = v1 .
In the same time , the secondary wavelet from A will travel a distance v2.
Draw an arc of radius v2 from point A in the medium 2. The tangent from C touches the
arc at E.
Then AE = v2 and CE represents the refracted wave front.
In the figure, BAC = i = angle of incidence and ECA = r = angle of refraction
BC = v1 and AE = v2
𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐸
From triangle BAC, sin 𝑖 = and from triangle ECA, sin 𝑟 =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
sin i BC⁄AC BC v1 τ v1
∴ = = = = − − − − − (1)
sin r AE⁄AC AC v2 τ v2
𝑐
Now, refractive index (n) of a medium: 𝑛 = where c – speed of light in vacuum.
𝑣
c c n2 v1
For the first medium: n1 = and for the second medium: n2 = ⟹ =
v1 v2 n1 v2
sin i n2
∴ Equation (1) becomes, = or n1 sin i = n2 sin r
sin r n1

This is the Snell’s law of refraction.

• Let λ1 and λ2 denote wavelengths of light in medium-1 and medium-2 respectively.

If distance BC = λ1 then the distance AE = λ2
Now, 1 = BC = v1 = v1 OR v1 = v2 OR 1 = 2
2 AE v2  v2 1 2
 Thus, when a wave gets refracted into a denser medium (v1>v2), the wavelength and
the speed of propagation decrease but the frequency (=v/λ) remains the same.
• When light travels from rarer medium to denser medium, it bends towards the normal.
That means, in the above figure, AE is shorter than
BC or v2 is less than v1. Thus, light has higher velocity
in rarer medium and smaller velocity in denser medium.

Refraction at a rarer medium:

Consider refraction of a plane wave at a rarer medium,
i.e., v2>v1. Proceeding in the same way, we can construct
a refracted wave front as shown in the adjacent figure.
The angle of refraction is greater than angle of incidence, but n1 sin i= n2 sin r is true.
Critical angle ic is given by the equation: sin ic = nn2 ,
1

Thus, if i= ic then sin r = 1 and r = 90°.

• For i>ic, there cannot be any refracted wave.
i.e., for all angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, we will not have any
refracted wave and the wave will undergo total internal reflection.

REFLECTION OF A PLANE WAVE BY A PLANE SURFACE:

[Derivation of law of reflection (i=r) for the reflection of plane wave front at the plane
surface, using Huygens principle]

MN – Plane reflecting surface

AB – Incident plane wave front
v – speed of the wave in the medium
i – angle of incidence

Consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN. If τ is the

time taken by the wave front to advance from the point B to C,
then the distance BC = vτ.
In order the construct the reflected wave front, a sphere of radius = vτ is drawn from
the point A as shown in the figure. The tangent plane CE drawn from the point C to this
sphere represents the reflected wave front.
 AE = BC = vτ, ABC= CEA = 90o, AC is common.
Triangles EAC and BAC are congruent.
 i = r.
This is the law of reflection.
Behaviour of the wavefronts on reflection and refraction:
• In adjacent figure, we consider a plane wave passing through
a thin prism. Since the speed of light waves is less in glass, the
lower portion of the incoming wave front which travels through
the greatest thickness of glass will get delayed resulting in a
tilt in the emerging wave front.

• In the adjacent figure, a plane wave incident on a thin convex

lens; the central part of the incident plane wave traverses the
thickest portion of the lens and is delayed the most. The
emerging wave front has a depression at the centre and therefore the wave front
becomes spherical (radius = f, focal length) and converges to
the point focus F.

• In adjacent figure, a plane wave is incident on a concave mirror

and on reflection we have a spherical wave converging to the
focus F.
• In a similar manner, plane wave incident (i) on concave lens emerging wave front becomes
spherical and diverges from the point F and (ii) on the convex mirror on reflection the
wave front becomes spherical and diverging.

DOPPLER EFFECT:
The change in the frequency of light received by the observer, due to the relative motion
between the source of light and the observer is known as Doppler Effect.
• Red Shift: When the source moves away from the observer, there is a decrease in
frequency (or increase in wavelength) of light received by the observer, due to Doppler
Effect. This is known as red shift.
If the source moves away from the observer, the later wave fronts have to travel a
greater distance to reach the observer and hence take a longer time. The time taken
between the arrival of two successive wave fronts is hence take a longer at the observer
than it is at the source. Therefore, the frequency will be smaller.
• Blue shift: When the source is moving towards the observer, there is an increase in
frequency (or decrease in wavelength) of light received by the observer, due to Doppler
Effect. This is known as blue shift.
If the source moves towards the observer, the later wave fronts have to travel a smaller
distance to reach the observer and hence take a shorter time. Hence the time taken
between the arrivals of two successive wave fronts is shorter at the observer than it is
at the source. Therefore, the frequency will be greater.
 Source of light moves towards the stationary Source of light moves away from the stationary
observer (v << c) observer (v << c)
 v  v
(i)Apparentfrequency   =   1 +  and (i) Apparent frequency   =   1 −  and
 c  c

 v  v
Apparent wavelength   =   1 −  Apparent wavelength   =   1 + 
 c  c

(ii) Doppler’s shift : Apparent wavelength < actual wavelength, (ii) Doppler’s shift : Apparent wavelength > actual wavelength,
So spectrum of the radiation from the source of light shifts So spectrum of the radiation from the source of light shifts
towards the red end of spectrum. This is called Red shift towards the violet end of spectrum. This is called Violet
v shift
Doppler’s shift Δ = .
c v
Doppler’s shift Δ = .
c

Expression for Doppler effect:

∆𝝂 𝐯𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒍
The fractional change in frequency due to Doppler effect, =−
𝝂 𝒄

Where,  - true frequency, Δ - change in frequency,

c - speed of light in vacuum and
vradial - component of the source velocity along the line joining the observer to
the source.
• Doppler effect of light is used in measuring the radial velocities of distant galaxies,
stars.
Note : ❑Doppler’s shift () and time period of rotation (T) of a star relates as
λ 2πr
Δλ = ×
c T
; r = radius of star.

Applications of Doppler effect

• Determination of speed of moving bodies(aeroplane, submarine etc)in RADAR and SONAR.
• Determination of the velocities of stars and galaxies by spectral shift.
• Determination of rotational motion of sun.
• Explanation of width of spectral lines.
• Tracking of satellites.
• In medical sciences in echo cardiogram, sonography etc.

INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT:
The modification in the distribution of light energy due to the superposition of two or more
light waves from the coherent sources is called interference of light.
Ex: The colour pattern observed on soap bubbles and the colour pattern observed on oil
spills on wet roads in the presence of sun light are due to interference of light.
Principle of superposition of waves: ‘At any instant, the resultant displacement at a point
is equal to the vector sum of the displacements produced at that point by each wave at
that instant’.
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒚𝟐 are the displacements of a particle at any instant, then by the
𝒚𝟏 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
principle of superposition of waves the resultant displacement of the particle at that
instant is 𝒚⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒚𝟏 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒚𝟐 .

Coherent Sources: Any two sources of light continuously emitting light waves having zero or
constant phase difference are called coherent sources.
Ex: Young’s double slit, Lloyd’s mirror, Fresnel Biprism.
• Interference can occur only with coherent sources. But two independent sources cannot
be coherent because even though they may emit light waves of equal wavelength and
equal amplitude, they may not have a constant phase difference.
• Therefore, to obtain two interference beams, a single source is used and its beam is split
into two in two different ways as follows:
(i) Division of wave front: In this case a wave front is divided into two parts by
reflection, refraction or diffraction so that those two parts reunite at a small angle
and produce interference.
Ex: In Young’s double slit, Fresnel’s biprism, Lloyd’s mirror.
(ii) Division of amplitude: In this case a wave front is split up into two parts by partial
reflection and reflection at a surface and these two parts are later made to reunite
to produce interference.
Examples: Interference bands observed using Air wedge and Newton’s rings.
Relation between path difference and phase difference:
2π
Phase difference = × path differnce
λ

Relation between Intensity and Amplitude: Intensity of a wave at a point is directly

proportional to square of the amplitude of the wave at that point.
𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 ∝ (𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞)𝟐
THEORY OF INTERFERENCE:
Interference effects are commonly observed in thin films when their thickness is comparable to
wavelength of incident light (If it is too thin as compared to wavelength of light it appears dark
and if it is too thick, this will result in uniform illumination of film). Thin layer of oil on water
surface and soap bubbles shows various colours in white light due to interference of waves reflected
from the two surfaces of the film.
Air
Oil Air

Air
Water
Soap bubble in air
Oil film on water surface
(1) Thin films : In thin films interference takes place between the waves reflected from
it’s two surfaces and waves refracted through it.
Reflected rays

t  r
r

Refracted rays

Interference in reflected light Interference in refracted light

Condition of constructive interference (maximum Condition of constructive interference (maximum

λ λ
intensity) Δ = 2μt cos r = (2n ± 1) intensity) Δ = 2μt cos r = (2n)
2 2
For normal incidence r = 0 so 2μt = (2n ± 1)λ2 For normal incidence 2μt = nλ
Condition of destructive interference (minimum Condition of destructive interference (minimum
λ λ
intensity) Δ = 2μt cos r = (2n) intensity) Δ = 2μt cos r = (2n ± 1)
2 2
For normal incidence 2μt = nλ λ
For normal incidence 2μt = (2n ± 1) 2

Note:❑The Thickness of the film for interference in visible light is of the order of 10,000Å.

[Derivation of conditions for constructive and destructive interference of light]

Consider two coherent sources of light S1 and S2.
Let the displacement produced by source S1 is, y1 = a cos (t)
and the displacement produced by source S2 is, y2 = a cos (t + )
Where, a – amplitude of waves
 – phase difference between the waves.
The resultant displacement is, y = y1 + y2
y = [ a cos (t) +a cos (t + )] = a [cos (t + )+ cos (t)]
 t +     
y = 2a cos   cos   ; Using cos C + cos D = 2cos  C+D  .cos  C − D 
 2  2  2   2 
y= 2a cos    cos  ωt +  
2  2

y= R cos  ωt +   ----------- (1)

 2

The amplitude of the resultant displacement is R = 2a cos   --------- (2)
2
The intensity at a point is, Intensity ∝ (amplitude)2
∴ The intensity at that a point will be, I = 4I0 cos2    ---------- (3)
2
Where, I0 – intensity of interfering individual wave
Conditions for Constructive Interference:
For the constructive interference at an arbitrary point P, the intensity of light at that
point is to be maximum, i.e. Imax = 4I0
⟹ cos2    = +1 ⟹ cos 
 = ±1
2 2
OR phase difference,  = 0,  2,  4 …. Or  =  𝐧
OR in terms of path difference:  = 𝐧 , (Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..)

Conditions for Destructive Interference:

For the destructive interference at an arbitrary point P, the intensity of light at that
point is to be minimum, i.e. Imin = 0
⟹ cos2    = 0 ⟹ cos 
 = 0
2 2

OR phase difference,  =  ,  3,  5 …. Or  =  (𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏) 

𝟏
OR in terms of path difference: 𝛅 = (𝐧 + 𝟐) 𝛌 , (Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..)
• If the two sources are coherent then the phase difference  at any point will not
change with time and a stable interference pattern is obtained at that point i.e., the
positions of maxima and minima will not change with time.
• When the phase difference between the two vibrating sources changes rapidly with time,
the two sources are said to be incoherent and when this happens the intensities just add
up so that I = 2 I0.
Example: when two separate light sources illuminate a wall.
• Resultant amplitude due to interference of waves of different amplitudes (a and b)
is given by
R = √a2 + b 2 + 2ab cos ∅

Constructive interference Destructive interference

(i) When the waves meets a point with same phase, (i) When the wave meets a point with
constructive interference is obtained at that point opposite phase, destructive interference is
(i.e. maximum light) obtained at that point (i.e. minimum light)
(ii) Phase difference between the waves at the point (ii) 𝜑 = 180𝑜 or(2𝑛 − 1)𝜋; n = 1, 2, ...
of observation 𝜑 = 0𝑜 or2𝑛𝜋 or (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋; 𝑛 = 0,1,2. . . ..
𝜆
(iii) Path difference between the waves at the point (iii) Δ = (2𝑛 − 1) 2 (i.e. odd multiple of /2)
of observation Δ = 𝑛𝜆 (i.e. even multiple of /2)
(iv) Resultant amplitude at the point of observation (iv) Resultant amplitude at the point of
will be maximum 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 ⇒ 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 observation will be minimum A min = a1 − a 2
If 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎0 ⇒ 𝐴0𝑚𝑎𝑥 If 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 ⇒ 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
 (v) Resultant intensity at the point of observation (v) Resultant intensity at the point of observation
will be maximum Imax = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 will be minimum I min = I1 + I 2 − 2 I1 I 2
I max = ( I1 + I 2 )
2
I min = ( I1 − I 2 )2

If I1 = I 2 = I0  I max = 2I0 If I1 = I 2 = I0  I min = 0

Young’s experiment:
Thomas Young for the first time demonstrated the
interference effects of light.
The experimental arrangement is as shown in Figure.
S represents a pin hole illuminated by sunlight. The
spherical wave front from S is incident on two pin holes A
and B which are very close to each other and equidistant
from S. Then the pin holes A and B act as two coherent
sources of light of same intensity.
The two sets of spherical wave fronts emerging from A and B interfere with each other
and produce interference pattern on a screen. The interference pattern consists of
alternate bright and dark bands parallel to the slits. They are also known
as interference fringes.
The width of interference fringes or fringe width: β = λD ;
d
where - wavelength of light, d is the distance between the slits and D is
the distance between the screen and the slits.
Screen
4 Dark
3 Bright
3 Dark
d = Distance between slits 2 Bright
2 Dark
S1 1 Bright
D = Distance between slits and screen 1 Dark
S d Central bright fringe
1 Dark
S2 1 Bright
 = Wavelength of monochromatic light 2 Dark (or Central maxima)
emitted from source 2 Bright
3 Dark
3 Bright
4 Dark
D

• In this experiment, if one of the two slits (or pin holes) is closed, the interference
pattern disappears. This shows that two coherent source are required to produce
interference pattern.
• The conditions for sustained and distinct interference pattern
(i) Two sources must be coherent sources of light and should emit light continuously.
(ii) The sources must be narrow and close to each other.
(iii) The amplitude of the interfering waves must be equal or nearly equal.
(iv) The distance between screen and the plane of slits be large (D>>d).
(v) Sources of light must be monochromatic.
Width of Interference Fringes:
[Derivation of fringe width of interference fringes using Young’s double slit experiment]

S1 and S2 - two coherent sources (Young’s double slits)

d – distance between slits
D – distance of screen from coherent sources/slits
O – center point on the screen and is equidistant from
S1 and S2

Consider the Young’s double slit arrangement as shown

in figure.
The path difference between the two light waves from S1 and S2 reaching the point O is
zero. Thus the point O has maximum intensity.
Consider a point P at a distance x from O.
The path difference between the light waves fromS1 and S2 reaching the point P is
 = S2P – S1P
2
From the figure, (S2 P )2 = (S2 F)2 + ( FP )2 = D2 +  x + d 
2 
2
(S1P )2 = (S1E )2 + ( EP )2 = D2 +  x −
d
Similarly 
 2

  d  
2
 d 
2
 ( S2 P ) − ( S1P ) =  D2 +  x +   −  D2 +  x −  
2 2

  2     2  

 d2  d   d2  d 
=  D2 + x 2 + + 2 ( x )    −  D2 + x 2 + − 2 ( x )    = 2 xd
 4  2    4  2  

i.e., (S2 P − S1P )(S2 P + S1P ) = 2 x d

2 xd
OR (S2 P − S1P ) =
(S2 P + S1P )

Since P is very close to O and d<< D, (S2 P + S1P )  2D

 Path difference: (S2 P − S1P ) = 2xd xd

= …………………… (1)
2D D

Equation (1) represents the path difference between light waves from S1 and S2 superposing
at the point P.
For constructive interference (or bright fringe or maximum intensity) at P, the path
difference must be multiple of , where  is the wavelength of the light used.
i.e., S2P – S1P = n λ ; where, n = 0, 1, 2 ...
 xd  λD
From (1), =nλ or x = n 
D  d 

 D 
i.e., The distance of the nth bright fringe from the centre O of the screen is xn = n  
 d 

 D 
The distance of (n + 1)th bright fringe from the centre of the screen is xn +1 = ( n + 1 )  
 d 

The distance between the centres of any two consecutive bright fringes is called the fringe
width of bright fringes.
The fringe width is given by,
 λ D  λ D  λD
β = x n+1 − x n = (n+1)   − n =
 d   d  d
𝛌𝐃
∴ 𝛃=
𝐝

Similarly, for dark fringes also we obtain the same expression for fringe width.

• All bright fringes and dark fringes have equal width.

• For dark region (fringe) or minimum intensity at P, the path difference:
 1
S2P – S1P =  n+  λ , where, n = 0, 1, 2 ...
 2
 1  D 
• Distance of the dark fringe from O is : xn =  n +  ;
 2  d 
Note: n=0 for 1st dark fringe, n=1 for 2nd dark fringe, etc
• The interference fringe width: β  λ , Hence for the red
light fringe width is highest and for the violet light it is
least.
• When a monochromatic source is replaced by another
monochromatic source of shorter wavelength, fringe width
and angular separation decreases.
• When the screen is moved away from the plane of the slits, separation of the fringes
(fringe width) increases.
• In the interference pattern, the variation of intensity of light with path difference is
(intensity distribution curve) is as shown in the adjacent figure.

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT:
The phenomenon of bending of light waves around the edges (or corners) of the obstacles
and entering into the expected geometrical shadow of the obstacle is called diffraction
of light.
• Ex.: Colours observed when a CD (Compact Disc) is viewed is due to diffraction
effects.
• Diffraction is a characteristic exhibited by all types of waves, sound waves, light
waves, water waves or matter waves.
• Diffraction of light is more pronounced when the dimensions of the obstacle (a) is
comparable with the wave length of light (𝜆 ≈ 𝑎).
• As the wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions of most obstacles; we do
not encounter diffraction effects of light in everyday observations.

Diffraction of light at single slit:

Consider a parallel beam of monochromatic light falling normally on a single narrow slit LN
of width a. The different parts of the wave front at the slit act as secondary sources of
disturbance. The secondary waves from the different parts of the slit interferes producing
diffraction pattern on the screen.
The diffraction pattern consists of a broad central bright region. On both sides of central
fringe, there are alternate dark and bright regions; the intensity becomes weaker away
from the centre, as shown in intensity distribution curve.
The path difference between secondary waves from the two edges of the slit L and N at
a point P on screen is,
NP – LP = NQ = a sin θ ≈ aθ (from ΔLQN, NQ = a sin θ)

Formation of central fringe:

At the central point O on the screen, all the parts of the slit contribute in phase (the all
path differences of secondary waves are zero) and this gives maximum intensity at O.
Hence the intensity has a central maximum at θ = 0.

Conditions for Secondary maxima:

The Secondary maxima are produced at θ   n+ 1  λ , n = ±1, ±2, ±3, …
 2a
For first secondary maximum: n=1, this implies, θ  3  λ 
2a 
Condition for minima:The Minima(zero intensity)is produced at θ  n λ , n=±1, ±2, ±3, ....
a
• The width of the central maxima is the distance between the first minimum on either
𝟐𝛌𝐃
side of the central maxima and is given by w = 𝐚
• The angular width of central maxima is, 2θ = 𝐚
𝟐𝛌

• The angular size/width of the central maximum increases with the wavelength of light
used and decreases with the increase in slit width a.
• Note: In interference and diffraction, light energy is redistributed. If it reduces in
one region, producing a dark fringe, it increases in another region, producing a bright
fringe. There is no gain or loss of energy, which is consistent with the principle of
conservation of energy.

Differences between interference and diffraction:

INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
1 Interference is due to the superposition of two It is due to the superposition of secondary wavelets
waves originating from two coherent sources originating from different parts of single slit.
2 Interference fringes have equal width. Diffraction fringes have unequal width.
3 Intensity of all bright fringes is equal and Intensity of central maximum is highest, Intensity of
Intensity of dark fringes is zero. secondary maxima decreases with increase in order. Dark
fringes are not perfectly dark.
4 In interference pattern a good contrast between In a diffraction pattern the contrast between the less bright
dark and bright band exists. band and dark band is comparatively lesser.

RESOLVING POWER OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS:

Resolving power of a telescope (objective lens):
A telescope is used to see distant objects.
The limit of resolution of a telescope is the angle subtended at the objective of the
telescope by two distant objects whose images are just resolved.
0.61 λ 1.22 λ
Limit of resolution: θ = =
a 2a
Where,  - wavelength of light and 2a - diameter of the objective.

The resolving power of the telescope is numerically equal to the reciprocal of the limit of
resolution.
1 a 2a
Resolving power= = =
θ 0.61 λ 1.22 λ
• The resolving power of a telescope is increased by using objectives of larger diameter.

Resolving power of a Microscope:

The minimum separation between two objects which are just resolved by the microscope is,
Minimum separation: dmin = 1.22 λ
2 sinβ
• If the medium between the object and the objective lens is not air but a medium of
refractive index n,
Minimum separation: dmin = 1.22 λ
2 n sinβ
The resolving power of the microscope defined as the reciprocal of the minimum separation
of two points seen as distinct (separate).
1 2 n sinβ
Resolving power = =
d min 1.22 λ
• Resolving power of a microscope can be increased (i) by choosing a medium of higher
refractive index between the object and the microscope (ii) by using light of shorter
wavelength.
• Usually oil having refractive index close to that of the objective lens is used. Such an
arrangement is called an ‘oil immersion objective’.
• A telescope resolves whereas a microscope magnifies.

Fresnel Distance:
The distance between the slit and screen at which spreading of diffracted light is
2
comparable with width of the slit, is called Fresnel distance: zF = a

Where, a – width of slit and λ – wavelength of light.
• For distances much smaller than z F , the spreading due to diffraction is smaller
compared to the size of the beam(a). Within this distance ray optics laws are valid.
• The spreading due to diffraction becomes considerable for the distance is
approximately z F or greater than z F and spreading due to diffraction dominates
over that due to ray optics.

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT:
The phenomenon by which the vibrations of the waves in a beam of light are restricted to
a single plane is called polarization.
The phenomenon of polarisation shows that “Light waves are transverse in nature” ; i.e.,
the electric field associated with a propagating light wave is always at right angles to
the direction of propagation of the wave.
• In an ordinary beam of light from a source, the vibrations of the waves occur normal to
the direction of propagation in all possible planes. Such a beam of light is called
unpolarised light.

Direction of
propagation
Direction of propagation Vertical oscillation Horizontal oscillation
• If a beam of light is produced in which vibrations are confined to only one plane, then
it is called plane polarized light. Polarization is the phenomenon of producing plane
polarized light from unpolarized light.
Polaroid

Plane polarised light

Note : ❑When unpolarised light is incident on the polariser, the intensity of the transmitted
polarised light is half the intensity of unpolarised light.
• In a plane polarized light the plane containing the direction of vibration and direction
of propagation of light is called plane of vibration.
• Plane of polarization is the plane which is perpendicular to the plane of vibration and
contains the direction of propagation. No vibrations occur in the plane of polarization.
Representation of Polarised and unpolarised light:

• Unpolarized light is represented as in Figure (a) and Fig (b).

• Plane polarized light with vibrations parallel to the plane of the figure is shown in
Figure (c).
• Plane polarized light with vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the figure is as
shown in Figure (d).
• (6) Optical activity and specific rotation
• When plane polarised light passes through certain substances, the plane of polarisation
of the light is rotated about the direction of propagation of light through a certain
angle. This phenomenon is called optical activity or optical rotation and the substances
optically active.
• If the optically active substance rotates the plane of polarisation clockwise (looking against the
direction of light), it is said to be dextro-rotatory or right-handed. However, if the substance
rotates the plane of polarisation anti-clockwise, it is called laevo-rotatory or left-handed.

Polariser Analyser Laevo-rotatory

Substance

Unpolarised light Polarised light dextro-rotatory

Polarimeter
• The optical activity of a substance is related to the asymmetry of the molecule or
crystal as a whole, e.g., a solution of cane-sugar is dextro-rotatory due to asymmetrical
molecular structure while crystals of quartz are dextro or laevo-rotatory due to structural
asymmetry which vanishes when quartz is fused.
• Optical activity of a substance is measured with help of polarimeter in terms of 'specific
rotation' which is defined as the rotation produced by a solution of length 10 cm (1
dm) and of unit concentration (i.e. 1 g/cc) for a given wavelength of light at a given
temperature. i.e. [α]λto C = L×C
θ
where  is the rotation in length L at concentration C.

Malus’ law:
‘The intensity of polarized light passing through analyser is proportional to the cosine of
the angle between the pass axes of the polarizer and the analyser’.
or
This law states that the intensity of the polarised light transmitted through the
analyser varies as the square of the cosine of the angle between the plane of transmission
of the analyser and the plane of the polariser.
Intensity = I0
P A
Amplitude = A0

Ii Intensity = I

Amplitude = A

(i) I = I0 cos 2  and A 2 = A02 cos 2   A = A 0 cos 

A0
 = 0 o , I = I0 , A = A 0 ,  = 45 o , I = , ,  = 90 o , I = 0 , A = 0
I0
If If A= If
2 2

(ii) If Ii = Intensity of unpolarised light.

I
So I0 = 2i
i.e. if an unpolarised light is converted into plane polarised light (say by passing
it through a plaroid or a Nicol-prism), its intensity becomes half. and I = I2i cos2 θ
− I min )
Note : ❑Percentage of polarisation = (Imax  100
(I max + I min )
The intensity of light through analyser is, I = I0 cos2
Where, I0 is the intensity of the polarized light after passing through polariser.

Polaroid’s: Polaroid is a device in the form of thin sheets used to produce plane polarised
light. A polaroid consist of long chain of molecules arranged in particular direction.
When an unpolarised light incident on polaroid, the electric field vector of light along the
direction of alignment of molecules is absorbed and the electric field vector perpendicular
to the direction is passed through the polaroid.

 The direction perpendicular to the direction of alignment of the molecules is called

pass axis of the polaroid.

Uses of Polaroid’s:
• Polaroid’s can be used to control the intensity, in sunglasses, windowpanes, etc.
• Polaroid’s are used in photographic cameras and 3D movie cameras.
• Polaroid’s used to produce and analyse the polarised light.
• Polaroid’s are used in head lights of vehicles, to reduce the glare of head lights.

Methods of producing Plane polarized light:

• Reflection, Scattering, Refraction, Double refraction and Selective absorption or
dichroism.

Polarization By Reflection: It was found that when a beam of ordinary light is reflected
by the surface of a transparent medium like glass or water, the reflected light is partially
polarized. The degree of polarization depends on the angle of incidence. As the angle of
incidence is gradually increased from a small value, the degree of polarization also increases.
At a particular angle of incidence the reflected light is completely plane polarized. This
angle of incidence is called Brewster’s angle or polarizing angle (iB). If the angle of
incidence is further increased, the degree of polarization decreases.
• Brewster’s angle for a surface is the angle of incidence for which the reflected light is
completely polarized.
• The vibrations of the plane polarized reflected light are found to be perpendicular to
the plane of incidence.

Brewster’s law:
[Relation between refractive index of reflecting medium- n and Brewster’s angle-iB]
Statement: ‘The tangent of the Brewster’s angle (iB) is equal to refractive index (n) of
the material of the reflector, i.e., n=tan iB’.
When the angle of incidence on a surface is equal to the Brewster’s angle, the reflected
and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.

Proof: Consider a beam of an unpolarised light incident at an angle equal to the Brewster’s
angle iB on the surface of a transparent material having refractive index n.
PO is the ray of light incident on the surface of glass slab of refractive index n at an
angle iB, the Brewster’s angle. OQ is the reflected ray, which is completely polarized. OR
is the refracted ray and is partially polarised. Let r be the angle of refraction.

It is observed that the reflected and the refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.
i.e. QOR = 90 -------- (1)
From laws of reflection, POM =MOQ = iB
From the figure,
Unpolarised Plane polarised
MOQ + QOR + RON = 180 light   P P
light
iB + 900 + r = 1800
 r + iB = 900
 r = 90 − iB ---------(2) Partial
 polarised
sin i
From Snell’s law, n = sin r
= sin iB
sin r
light
Polarisation by reflection
sin i B sin i B
 n = o =
sin (90 − i B ) cos i B
 n = tan iB
This is Brewster’s law.

Polarization By Scattering: The light from a clear blue portion

of the sky shows a rise and fall of intensity when viewed through a
polaroid which is rotated. The radiation scattered by the air molecule
is polarised and is represented by dots in the figure. It is polarised
perpendicular to the plane of the figure. This explains the
polarization of scattered light from the sky.

Applications and uses of polarization

• By determining the polarising angle and using Brewster's law, i.e.  = tanP,
refractive index of dark transparent substance can be determined.
• It is used to reduce glare.
• In calculators and watches, numbers and letters are formed by liquid crystals through
polarisation of light called liquid crystal display (LCD).
• In CD player polarised laser beam acts as needle for producing sound from compact
disc which is an encoded digital format.
• It has also been used in recording and reproducing three-dimensional pictures.
• Polarisation of scattered sunlight is used for navigation in solar-compass in polar regions.
• Polarised light is used in optical stress analysis known as 'photoelasticity'.
• Polarisation is also used to study asymmetries in molecules and crystals through the
phenomenon of 'optical activity'.

Concepts
 The angular thickness of fringe width is defined as  =

D
=

d
, which is independent of
the screen distance D.
 Central maxima means the maxima formed with zero optical path difference. It may be
formed anywhere on the screen.
 All the wavelengths produce their central maxima at the same position.
 The wave with smaller wavelength from its maxima before the wave with longer wavelength.
 The first maxima of violet colour is closest and that for the red colour is farthest.
 Fringes with blue light are thicker than those for red light.
 In an interference pattern, whatever energy disappears at the minimum, appears at
the maximum.
 In YDSE, the nth maxima always comes before the nth minima.
I
 In YDSE, the ratio Imax is maximum when both the sources have same intensity.
min

 For two interfering waves if initial phase difference between them is 0 and phase
difference due to path difference between them is  '. Then total phase difference
𝟐π
will be φ = φ0 + φ′ = φ0 + λ Δ.
 Sometimes maximm number of maximas or minimas are asked in the question which can be
obtained on the screen. For this we use the fact that value of sin  (or cos ) can't
be greater than 1. For example in the first case when the slits are vertical
sin  =
n
d
(for maximum intensity)
sin  ≯1  n
d
≯1 or n ≯ d
Suppose in some question d/ comes out say 4.6, then total number of maximuas on the
screen will be 9. Corresponding to n = 0,  1,  2,  3 and  4 .
  Shape of wave front
B D
i i r r

A C
If rays are parallel, wave front is plane. If rays are converging wave front is spherical of

decreasing radius. If rays are diverging wave front is spherical of increasing radius.

 Reflection and refraction of wave front B

i i C
A r
r

D
Wave front

Reflection Refraction
BC = AD and  i =  r BC v1
= =
sin i  2
=
AD v 2 sin r 1

Board level
Question on Wave optics :
1/2 marks Questions:
1. What is a wave front? [March 2014]
2. State Huygens principle of wave fronts.
3. What is Doppler effect of light?
4. What do you meant by red shift in Doppler effect of light?
5. What do you meant by blue shift in Doppler effect of light?
6. What are coherent sources of light? Give an example.
7. What is meant by interference of light? [March 2015]
8. Mention the conditions for constructive and destructive interference in terms of phase
difference.
9. Give the condition for constructive and destructive interference in terms of path
difference between the interfering waves. [March 2015, July 2016]
10. What is fringe width? Write the expression for fringe width.
11. What is diffraction of light?
12. Mention the expressions for limit of resolution of (a) microscope and (b) telescope.
[July 2014]
 13. Mention the expressions for resolving power of (a) microscope and (b) telescope.
14. Mention the methods of increasing resolving power of microscope. [July 2014]
15. How the resolving power of microscope does depend on the wavelength of the incident
light?
16. Mention the method of increasing resolving power of telescope. [March 2016]
17. What is meant by polarisation of light?
18. Name the phenomenon of light that confirms the transverse nature of light.
19. State Brewster’s law of polarisation.
20. Mention any three applications of polaroids. [March 2016, March 2017]
21. State and explain Malus’ Law. [March 2014]
22. Write the formula for Malus’ law. [July 2016]

3/5 marks Questions:

23. State and explain Huygens principle of wave fronts.
24. Using Huygens principle, arrive at the Snell’s law of refraction.
25. Using Huygens principle, deduce the law of reflection.
26. Describe Young’s double slit experiment. [June 2015]
27. Give the theory of interference. Hence obtain the conditions for constructive and
destructive interference.
28. Obtain the expression for the fringe width of interference fringes in Young’s
double slit experiment. [March 2014, July 2014]
29. Explain the diffraction of light at a single slit and draw the intensity distribution
curve of diffraction fringes.
30. Mention the difference between interference and diffraction of light.
31. Define Brewster’s angle and hence arrive at the Brewster’s law of polarisation.

Problems:
1. In young’s double slit experiment while using a source of wavelength 4500 Å, the
fringe width obtained is 5 mm. If the distance between the screen and plane of the
slits is reduced to half, what should be the wavelength of the light required to get
fringes of width 4 mm? [July 2016]
2. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 420 nm and 560 nm is used to obtain
interference fringes in Young’s double slit experiment. The distance between the
slits is 0.3 mm and the distance between the slits and the screen is 1.5 m. Compute
the least distance of the point from the central maximum, where the bright fringes
due to both the wavelengths coincide. [June 2015]
3. In Young’s double slit experiment, fringes of certain width are produced on the screen
kept at a certain distance from the slits. When the screen is moved away from the
 slits by 0.1 m, fringe width increases by 60 m. The separation between the slits is
1 mm. Calculate wavelength of light used. [March 2016]
4. In Young’s double-slit experiment distance between the slits is 1 mm. The fringe
width is found to be 0.6 mm. When the screen is moved through a distance of 0.25
m the fringe width becomes 0.75 mm. Find the wavelength of the light used.
[March 2017]