UNIT 1: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS RESULTANT FORCE ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE When investigating how forces affect the motion of an object, itis useful to get the resultant force, ‘The resultant force is: = the vector sum of all the forces acting on the object Ifthey are in the same direction, they are added. Ifthe forces are in opposite directions, they are subtracted. ox_—_ fj} Resultant force —-——> 11 on —_ fj} — Resultant force <—= 5 N «-—_§_j-" on Resultant force —» 4N RESULTANT FORCE AT RIGHT ANGLES ‘Sometimes the forces (or velocities) on an object are perpendicular to each other and not along the same straight line. Simple addition or subtraction will not work. To find their resultant we either use trigonometry or drawing methods. The resultant force will always be somewhere in between the two forces. 3 ‘Cambridge IGCSE Physics ‘Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScanner[UNIT 1: GENERAL PHVSICS AND MECHANICS, Calculation method ‘These two forces make up a right-angled triangle, and the resultant is the hypotenuse. We can use the Pythagoras theorem to solve for the resultant, aN & . & &, oes € & . an aN ‘The Pythagoras theorem states that: c=Va+BE ‘Therefore: Resultant = (8 +8? = 11.31N To find the direction of the resultant (angle 8), we use the sine function: opposite 8 ing = opposite oa typtoneuse — 11.: a = 45° nz ‘The magnitude of the resultant force is 11.3 N and the direction is 45° to the horizontal (the angle between the resultant force and the horizontal line. ‘Cambridge 1GCSE Physics oo ‘Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT 12 GENERAL PIIYSICS AND MECHANICS Drawing Method In this method, we draw the two forces to scale in oder to find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force. We will use the same example as before. Scale tem:1N Bom ————p) Step 1: Draw an 8 em horizontal ne. Thisis the first force. cm Bom ‘Bem Step 2: Draw an 8 cm vertical ne at the head (arrow) ofthe fist lin. Thisis the second force. ‘Step 3: Draw ane from the starting point of the first line tothe end ofthe ‘second line. Tiss the resultant force. Usearuler to measure the length of this. line and a protractor to measure the angle 8 (Cambridge 1GCSE Physics ‘Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT: GENERAL PIIVSICS AND MECHANICS NEwTon’s LAWS OF MOTION Let’s investigate how forees affect the motion of an object. Sir Isaac Newton is considered the father of mechanies and we still use his laws of motion to explain motion. He came up with three laws of motion to explain how forces affect the movement of an object. Newton's First Law states the following: at rest, or continues in a straight line at a constant speed unless acted on by a resultant foree ‘An object will remai We can elaborate on this law using the following five cases: 4, Ifthe resultant foree acting on an object is in i the direction of motion, the object speeds up Speed increases, Gve acceleration) = 2. Ifthe resultant force acting on an object is Speed decreases ‘opposite to the direction of motion, the object s slows down (-ve acceleration or deceleration) © _F¢=——-—- iy 3. Ifthe resultant force acting on an object is as perpendicular to the direction of motion (sideways), the object changes direction 4, Ifthe RESULTANT FORCE = ZERO on a : < Atrest stationary object, the object stays at rest eae > 5. ifthe RESULTANT FORCE = ZERO on a a ‘moving object, the object moves at constant speed and in the same direction en ‘To summarize, if there is a resultant force on an object, it will accelerate! This tells us a particularly important thing, objects don’t need forces to STAY moving, we only need a force to START moving. If you stop pushing an object, it stops because there is a RESISTING force acting on it (like friction). Calculating Accelerating Force using Newton's Second Law To caleulate the force acting on an object we use a simple equation: Force =massx acceleration F=ma Note that this equation gets you the resultant force. Also, mass MUST be in kilograms and acceleration in m/s?. The force and acceleration are always in the same direction. ‘The equation shows us two important points: 1. Fora given acceleration, force is directly proportional to mass (F « m). This means that the larger the mass, the greater the force needed to accelerate the object. 2, Fora given force, acceleration is inversely proportional to mass (a « +). Meaning that the greater the mass, the smaller the acceleration that an object will experience. ‘Cambridge IGCSE Physics Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScanner[UNIT 1s GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS Allin all, this shows us that mass is a property that resists any changes in motion (Masses don't like to move very much). Solved Example A resultant force of 4500N is acting on a 900kg car in its direetion of motion. Calculate the acceleration of the car. CIRCULAR MOTION If | ask you whether a car, moving in a circle at constant speed, is accelerating or not? What would your answer be? ‘The correct answer here would be: Yes, it is accelerating. Remember that velocity isa vector. So, when the direction ofthe ear changes, its velocity changes (even ifits speed is constant. Since aceleration isthe change in velocity, then a change in direction is considered to be acceleration. However, according to Newton’s Second Law, if an object is accelerating, then there must be a force acting on the object to cause that acceleration. In the ease of an object moving ina circle, the force is always towards the center of the circle. force acing ‘towards the ‘enter of the ice keeps the carmoving in a cirde In this case, the force is provided by the sideway friction ofthe car, But regardless of the case, the force is always towards the center ofthe circle. point where car leaves the circle \ ® Cambridge IGCSE Physies Secreted ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS Ifthe object moves too fast, or if the radius of the circle is too small, the object might leaye the circle. When it does, it leaves in a direction that is tangent to the circle at the point where itlef. ‘There are three factors that affect the magnitude of the force needed to keep an object in a cireular path: 41, Force needed increases if speed increases, with mass and radius constant 2, Force needed increases as radius inereases, with mass and speed constant 3. Force needed increases as mass inereases, to keep speed and radius constant ‘This explains why itis difficult to take a U-turn at extremely high speeds with a heavy truck. The force needed will be extremely high since the radius of a U-turn is very small, making it very likely that the truck would leave the circular path and topple over. OBJECTS FALLING IN VACUUM (AIR RESISTANCE IS IGNORED) ‘The force of Earth’s gravity isthe reason objects fall, since Earth (and any large celestial body for that matter) applies a strong attractive foree on all masses around it. When an object falls due to that force, near the Earth’s surface, it falls with a constant acceleration of 9.8 m/s. We call this the acceleration of freefall, and it is constant if you are near the Earth's surface and there is no air resistance. ‘Since all objects fall with this acceleration, its size and mass don’t matter. Ifyou drop a feather and a bowling ball in a vacuum (where there is no air), from the same height and at the same time, they will hit the floor at the same time. They both speed up equally, moving with the same acceleration, . ©@ Both objects fll with the ‘SAME ACCELERATION and reach the ground at the same time (Cambridge IGCSE Physics Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT 11 GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS OBJECTS FALLING IN AIR ‘When an object moves through air, the air resistance acting on it changes during the objects motion. ‘This is because air resistance is affected by the speed and area of the moving object. So how do the forces and acceleration of an object change as it falls through air? ‘To help explain this we use a skydiver as our test subject: ? Initially, there is only weight pulling the skydiver down. The skydiver falls with a constant acceleration welght air resistance Then, as the speed of the di air resistance inereases, causing the downward resultant force and acceleration to decrease. Eventually, the air resistance and weight become equal, causing the resultant force and acceleration to be zero. The skydiver falls at constant speed (called TERMINAL, VELOCITY). air resistance IF the parachute is opened, the air resistance becomes temporarily greater than weight, causing the resultant force and acceleration to be upward (the skydiver now falls with decreasing acceleration until it reaches a new terminal velocity. weight Cambridge IGCSE Physics ‘Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS 1.4 TURNING EFFECT OF FORCES CHAPTER SUMMARY Moment ofa force isa measure of its turning effect. moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot Equilibrium is when there is no resultant force and no resultant moment on an object. Center of gravity is a point in an object where weight is considered to act. ‘The center of gravity of a plane lamina can be found using a plumbline. Stability of an object increases with a lower center of gravity and wider base. MoMeENT Forces can also make objects rotate, provided that part of that object is fixed in place (we call that fixed point a pivot. So, when you apply a force on an object with a pivot, the object rotates about the pivot and this effect is called a moment. pon of force beam rotates clockwise Alot of things that we use daily rely on moments. Scissors, doors, evers, handles, spanners, wrenches, and steering wheels just to name a few, A moment is calculated usi force x perpendicular distance from pivot Fxd sates ( anticlockwise moment clockwise moment ‘The unit of measurement of moment is Nem or Nm. It isa vector quantity that has both ‘magnitude and direction. However, a moment only has two direetions: clockwise and anticlockwise. The angle between the distance and the line of action of the force must be 90”. Usually, the force is perpendicular to the door or lever, soit is easy. force no moment ‘Note that ifa force acts through the pivot, there will be no moment because the distance will be zero. Sr ere (Cambridge IGCSE Physics ‘Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS EQUILIBRIUM ‘Equilibrium isa state where an object is completely balanced. There are two conditions for that to be ‘rue: 4. No Resultant Foree the resultant force must be zero so all the upward forees must be equal to the downward. forces, and the forces acting to the right equal to the left 2. No Resultant Moment the resultant moment must be zero so all the clockwise moments must be equal to the anticlockwise moments ‘An interesting thing about equilibrium is that ifan object is moving in a straight line at constant ‘speed itis considered to be in equilibrium (because the resultant force and moment on it are zero). Effect of distance on force during balance fan objects in equilibrium, forces that are closer to the pivot are larger while forces that are {farther away from the pivot are smaller. osm__, ,02m, 200N 250N ‘Solved Example ‘The image shows a beam in equilibrium. F is the foree of an unknown load and Ris the force of the pivot on the beam. Using the information in the image calculate the values of (a)F and (b)R R osm _,t.02m / 100 pot F (Since R is acting at the pivot it will have no moment) (a) Since the system is in equilibrium, clockwise moment is equal to anti-clockwise moment. Substitute the calculated values in the equilibrium equation. Clockwise Moment = AntiClockwise Moment Fx0.2m=100NxX05m 100N x 0.5m 02m =250N (b) To calculate R, we need to apply equilibrium for upward and downward forces Upward Forces = Downward Forces R=100N+F R= 100 N +250N = 350N Cambridge 1GCSE Physics ‘Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT 1: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS CENTER OF GRAVITY the center of gravity is a point in an object where weight is considered to act Gravity affects every single particle in an object and pulls them down, Instead of drawing the weight ofan object as several small lines, we draw a single downward arrow acting from a specific point, ‘The center of mass is usually in the center of regularly shaped objects. This however changes if the object has an irregular shape, the center of mass shifts towards the heavier side of the object. This point was chosen because this is the point where an object will be completely balanced if a pivot is placed there, a >. = Experiment: Finding the center of mass of a plane lamina (sheet of card or paper) 4. Hang the card using a pin, stand and clamp from one end. When the ard balances, the center of mass is somewhere below the pin. 2, Attach a thread with a mass at the end (plumb line) on the pin and draw a vertical line along the thread. 3+ Repeat steps 1 & 2 from another point on the card. The point of intersection of the lines is the center of mass. Cambridge IGCSE Physics Mohammed Ali Scanned with |\CamScannerUNIT: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS STABILITY R= the ability of an object to resist toppling over Am object that is stable doesn’t fll over easily when tilted or pushed. Less stable objects topple over ‘ery easily when slightly tilted. Two factors affect stability: 4. Height of the center of mass the higher the center of mass, the less stable an object becomes (and vice versa) Width of the base the wider the base, the more stable an object becomes (and vice versa) How do objects fall over? ‘The physics behind objects toppling over actually relies on moments, When tilted the edge ofthe object on the ground becomes a pivot. Bottle has been tilted a ot and wll fallover because the weight has crossed the pivot and will cause a clockwise moment Bottle is slightly tited but won't fll over since the weight isto the left of the pivot (edge of bottle) Bottle is stable since the weight is ) acting through the base sites fae t0C82 is ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT 1; GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS 1.5 MOMENTUM CHAPTER SUMMARY ‘Momentum is defined as mass x velocity. p=mv Resultant force is defined as the change in momentum per unit time. ‘Amv _ ap at Bt Impulse is defined as Force x time Impulse = Fe = Amv Impulse is equal tothe change in momentum of an object. Principle of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum ofa closed isolated system isconstant. DEFINING AND UNDERSTANDING MOMENTUM Isaac Newton described momentum as “the amount of motion an object has”. However, itis defined as and calculated by: momentum = mass x velocity p= mv ‘The units of measurements of momentum are kgam/s or Ns (well discuss that later). Momentum is vector quantity, so it has magnitude and direction, ‘The idea of momentum is that any change in motion doesn't only depend on the object's velocity, it also depends on its mass. Let's take a moving car for example. A 1000kg car, moving at 8okm/h is more dificult to brake than the same ear moving at 20km/h. (It is harder to stop because it has more momentum) 8okm/ 294mm/h Gag tse raking force 3 braking force Another ease is pushing a 1000kg car and a 1gkg bicyele (you're not on the darn thing yet) alongside each other. The car is more difficult to push because it has more mass (thus requiring a bigger force). (This is because you want a greater change in momentum in the car than the bike). — —+ ae et So, you can see that looking at a moving object’s velocity alone to describe motion isn’t enough. We have to look at mass and this is why we have momentum! Cambridge IOCSE Physics Er) Mohammed At ‘Scanned with |CamScanner[UNIT 12 GENERAL PIIYSICS AND MECHANICS DEFINING RESULTANT FORCE Momentum can help us define resultant force differently. Resultant force acting on an object is equal tothe change in momentum per unit time Force can now be calculated using: change in momentum | Amv _ ap time at at “The equation shows that ifyou want a certain change in momentum (or velocity) in a short amount of time, you need a very large force. Whereas if you want that change in momentum over a longer time, the foree needed decreases. IMPULSE Impulse is used to deseribe a force acting in an extremely short period of time. Itis calculated using: force = ‘Impulse = Force X time Impulse = Ft But if we rearrange the previous force equation we get: Ft= dmv ‘This means that impulse is simply change in momentum. The unit of impulse is Ns (which is why we also said that the unit of momentum is also Ns). ‘Solved Example ‘A driver accelerates gently so that a foree of go N acts a 900 kg car for 10 s. Calculate (a) the impulse of the force and (b) the change in velocity due to that impulse. (a) Just substitute the given values into the impulse equation impulse = Ft = 30 x 10 = 300 Ns (b) To calculate the change in velocity we have to remember that impulse gives us the change in ‘momentum so rearrange the equation and substitute the impulse and mass into the equation impulse = mAv impulse 300 Ay = 555 = 033m/s Cambridge IGCSE Physics Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT 1: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS COLLISIONS AND THE LAW OF CONSERVATION ‘When two objects collide, their velocities change. One object could move faster, or slower, or the two could stick together on impact. However, there is one law that is always the same: the total momentum of a closed system is always conserved ‘When solving collision questions, this can easily be written as: ‘sum of momentumyesore = Sum of momentumarrer ‘Since momentum is a vector, direction is an important factor here. When solving collision problems, ny object moving to the right (or up) gets a +ve sign while any object moving to the left (or down) gets a-ve sign. Solved Example Ball A of mass 0.25 kg is moving at 20 m/s. It hits a stationary ball B of mass 0.025 kg. 20 m/ @ atest After the collision, the ball A continues to move at a speed of 2 m/s. (a) Caleulate the momentum of ball A before the collision (b) Calculate the speed of ball B after the collision. (a) Substitute the values in the momentum equation momentum = mvy = (0.25 x 20) = 5 kgm/s (b) To get the speed of ball B after the collision, we need to use the law of conservation (remember that ball B has no momentum before the collision) sum of momentumperore = sum of momentuttarter siyg = muy tmp 7) Port SS 5 = (0.25 x 2) + (0.025 x v9) 5 =05+0.025ve Ye (Cambridge IGCSE Physics ‘Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerERAL.PIIVSICS AND MECHANICS 1.6 ENERGY WORK AND POWER CHAPTER SUMMARY Energy can be stored as kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical, elastic (strain), nuclear, electrostatic and internal (thermal) Energy can be transferred using mechanical work, electrical currents, heating, and waves Kinetic energy can be caleulated using Ey = tmv? Gravitational potential energy can be ealeulated using E = mgh Principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be ereated nor destroyed, it can only be changed from one form to another Mechanical or electrical work is equal tothe energy transferred W=AE=Fxd Power is defined as the work done per unit time, or energy transferred per unit time wae te Efficiency represents how well a device transfers energy or power, the more efficient the device the Tess energy or power is wasted. useful energy (power) output efficiency = ~ oat energy (power) input x 100 TYPES OF ENERGY STORES ‘There are various types of energy stores that we need to be familiar with, some even have equations that we use to calculate the amount. ‘The unit of measurement of energy is Joules (J). Description. Kinetic Thisis the energy of movement. The faster the object, the more Kinetic energy it has. Gravitational (Potential) | Thisis the energy stored in an object when iis raised above the ground, against the force of gravity. ‘Chemical This s the energy stored in food, fuel and a living organism's body (Caumans, animals ete.,). tis also present in batteries. Strain (Elastic) Energy stored ina stretched, compressed or bent object, like Fopes, springs, rules, etc. Thermal (internal) Energy stored inside an object with a high temperature. (We will redefine this later) Nuclear Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. Ibis released through two different reactions, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion (more on those Jater). Electrical Energy transferred during the flow of charges. Light Energy transferred by light waves. ‘Sound Energy transferred by sound waves. Cambridge 1GCSE Physics Mohammed ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerCALCULATING KINETIC ENERGY (KE) Since kinetic energy depends on movement, it makes sense that its equation includes speed or velocity. It is ealeulated using: ‘Where mis the mass of the object and vis the speed of the object. CALCULATING GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY (GPE) Gravitational Potential Energy doesn't just depend on the height of the object above the ground but also the mass of the object. The heavier an object is, the more GPE it stores. Itis calculated using: Eq=mgh Where m is the mass, =9.8 N/kg and h is the height above the ground. potential energy Law OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY ‘There is one crucial law that energy follows: energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another ‘Meaning that energy cannot magically be created out of nothing, nor ean we make energy disappear into the nether. However, we ean make it change from one type to another (and that’s the basic idea of any machine or process). Let's look at a few examples of conservation. Lifting a ball: Chemical energy in the body is transformed to gravitational in the ball Muscles rechanialy, al (Chemica {Gravitational} Releasing the ball (ball is falling): The gravitational energy in the ball is converted to kinetic energy. Some energy is lost as heat due to air resistance. echanicaly = a” (inet) (Gravtatona heating pa {heemal Cambridge GCSE Physics Mohammed Alt ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT 11 GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS Ball hits the floor (and stops): Kinetic energy decreases to zero and changes to sound and heat (this heat is due to deformation and not friction), chai co me | tran) (rat) alt Ar ame (heemal) Bending a ruler: Chemical energy in my body decreases and changes to strain in the ruler. ‘Muscles mechanical nuter (Chemica (ta) Car engine (speeding up): Chemical energy in the fuel decreases and changes to kinetic. Some ‘energy is wasted as heat and sound. mechanical or (inti) Foer (Chemica | —? eating crear >| _ (thermal heating Car brakes (stopping): Kinetic energy of the car decreases and changes to heat in the brakes. Car dechanicaly [erates & ir (ineie) (Trermal) Microphone: Sound energy from the singer to electrical in the wires. wires Sound of (Glew) ‘Loudspeaker: Electrical energy from the wires to sound. Loudspeaker Sound (Glecticat) Battery connected to a light bulb that is lit: Chemical energy in cell to electrical energy in wires that changes to light and heat in lamp. radiation yf Ught BaRETY elect (Chemica) lamp & Ar eating "L_Cermad Et) ‘Mohammed Ali (Cambridge IGCSE Physics ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT 1: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS ‘There are many more types of energy transfers, but the important partis that energy is always transformed from one form to another. ‘The following is a very common example of conservation of energy. ‘Solved Example, 5 =) ‘Aceyelist pedals up a hill, Her mass with the bieyele is 90kg- She then rides down the hill, without pedaling or using brakes. 10m Calculate: (a) her gravitational potential energy at the top of the hill (b) her maximum speed at the bottom of the hill (assume no friction or air resistance) (a) To calculate her gpe, just substitute in the equation _gpe = mgh = 90 x 9.8 x 10 = 8820) (b) In order to find her speed, you need to realize that the ke atthe bottom of the hill is equal to the gpe atthe top of the hill $x 90 x v? = 9820, 7 00x 0? = 8920) [aa20 4 m/s ‘Cambridge IGCSE Physics en ‘Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerWORK Workis defined as: the transfer of energy Work could either be mechanical or electrical. A simple example of mechanical work is a man pushing a box along a horizontal flat surface. You can calculate his working using: xa Work = force x distance W=AE ‘The unit of measurement of work is also Joules (J). _ se Itis important to note that the distance you use must be in the same direction as the force. Take a look at the following case: Ifyou were calculating the work done by F, then you'd use work = F x d. However, ifyou were to calculate the work done against gravity (W), then you'd use work = Wx h. PoweR the work done (energy transferred) per unit time Also defined as the rate of energy transfer. Its calculated easily using: Work (Energy) W_ AE Power =———_———— sss time icant ‘The unit of measurement of power is Watt (W). Where a power of 1 Watt means that 1 Joule of work was done every 1 second. To understand the idea, le’s take two people at the gym, lifting identical weights up to the same height. The person who lifts the weight in less time has more power! (That would be me *rawr ©) ‘Cambridge IGCSE Physics oe ‘Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT 1: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS EFFICIENCY Not all energy transfers are 100% efficient, Some energyis almost always wasted. For example, a light, bulb’s function is to convert electrical energy to light, ‘but some of that energy is released as heat (that is considered wasted). , Light energy Electrical fil energy GoW a Wasted Heat ‘energy 45W Efficieney is: the percentage ratio between the useful output you get and the total input you give into a system. Itis calculated using: useful energy output total energy input” 10° efficiency useful power output total power input Applying it to the lightbulb above, we can say that the lightbulb is 25% efficient. Meaning only a quarter of the energy was used while three quarters of the energy was wasted! (That's a lot of ‘money we are wasting too!!! ©) efficienc x 100 Inorder to makea device more efficient, we always aim ipa to decrease the wasted energy. This would result ina ied decrease in the total energy input needed to run the Electrical 1» device. Take this next lightbulb. By decreasing the energy ‘wasted energy to 5W, this results ina total energy input 20W' of 20W. » Calculating the efficiency here gives usa result of 75%! Wasted Heat “This means that 3/4 ofthe energy is useful with only a energy SW quarter being wasted. Much better than the firs light, bulb. Solved Example ‘An IGCSE student weighs 700N climbs a 10m ladder in 1 minute. (a) Caleulate the ‘work done by the student in climbing the ladder (b) Calculate the power developed by the student (c) If the human body is 50% efficient. How much power was actually developed by the student? a) Just plug in values into the equation E = F x d= 700 x 10 (b) Use the previous value to get power using the equation P (©) Actual power developed is another way of saying input power. So with thatin mind use the efficiency equation as follows: efficiency = 2 srw, sata x 100 then 50 = #2 x 100 input = 22 BZ x 100 =234W Cambridge IGCSE Physics Mohammed li ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT 11 GENERAL PHIYSICN AND MECHANICS 1.7 ENERGY RESOURCES | CHAPTER SUMMARY Renewable sources of energy are infinite (do not run out when used), Solar, wind, water and geothermal are renewable. ‘Non-renewable sources of energy are finite (run out when used). Coal, oil, gas and nuclear are non- renewable, Fossil fuels, nuclear and geothermal power stations use boiling water to produce steam. Steam turns a turbine and generator to produce electricity, Hydroelectric tidal, and wave stations use flowing water to turn the turbine and generator to produce electricity. Wind turbines use wind to turn the generator and produce electricity. Solar cells convert light energy from sunlight to generate electricity, Solar panels use infrared waves to heat water. ‘Suns the source ofall energy resources except geothermal, nuclear and tidal. Energy from the Sun is released by nuclear fusion. Advantages of renewable sources include being renewable and do not cause pollution. Disadvantages of most renewable sources include being unreliable, low energy production and Aifficulty in finding appropriate locations. Advantages of non-renewable sources include being reliable and high energy output. Disadvantages of non-renewable sources include producing a lot of pollution and being eventually running out. SOURCES OF ENERGY {All the electrical energy we getis generated at power stations. There are different types of power stations that use different sources of energy. However, to stat, we classify sources of energy into two main types: renewable and non- renewable. Renewable energy sources are infinite (do not run out) and can be used indefinitely. Solar, water, geothermal and wind energy are all renewable. Non-renewable energy sources are finite (eventually run out) since they're mostly minerals that ‘we mine from the earth. Coal, ga, oil (fossil fuels) and nuclear energy are all non-renewable. They also cause a lot of pollution and harmful waste. Cambridge 1GCSE Physics 43 Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT 1 GENERAL PIIYSICS AND MECHANICS Power STATIONS ‘There are three eategories of power stations. ‘The first uses steam to turn a turbine and generator. These need heat to boil water and produce steam, Fossil fuels, nuclear and geothermal fall under this category. ‘The second uses flowing water to turn the turbine and generator without heating. Hydroelectric, tidal, and wave stations fall under this. The third does not use water at all. Wind turbines and solar cells fall under this category. Category 1: Steam Coal, Gas, Oil Power Stations (Fossil Fuels) ‘The basi idea is quite simple. Fuel is burned to boil water. The steam rotates a turbine which activates the generator, generating electricity. ‘The main energy conversion in the power station goes like th chemical + heat > kinetic + electrical steam flows Auickiy through water in Pipes fo turbine boiler changes to steam turbine rotates coal burns to ‘generator generates heat water electricity Advantages: Reliable, high-energy output Disadvantages: Air pollution, greenhouse gases, non-renewable Nuclear Power Stations In nuclear power stations, uranium undergoes a process called nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is a reaction where the nuclei of uranium are broken into smaller nuclei, to release a lot of heat energy. The rest is similar to a fossil fuel station. ‘The main energy conversion is this: nuclear > heat > kinetic > electrical ‘Nuclear energy is extremely dangerous because if the reaction is not controlled, the entire facility could blow up! There's also the issue of radioactive waste. ‘Cambridge IGCSE Physics cry Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerLUNTT 1: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS ‘steam flows dull through waterin plpesoturbine boller turbine rotates changes to steam nuclear Feaclor generator generates heats water electricity Advantages: Reliable, very high-energy output \dvantages: Nuclear waste, ionizing radiation, non-tenewable Geothermal Power Station ‘The deeper we dig into the earth, the hotter it gets. Geothermal power stations use the natural heat from the earth to boil water. The hot rocks underground heat the cold water from the station, that boils and turns to steam. The steam goes up and turns a turbine and the generator generates electricity. ‘The main energy conversion is: Sak al thermal + kinetic + electrical {generator generates electricity, Advantages: Renewable, reliable, no pollution Disadvantages: difficult to find a location where rocks are hot enough ‘Cambridge 1GCSE Physics 5 Mohammed Al Scanned with |\CamScanner[UNIT 1: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS Hydroolectric Power Station ‘This type of power station uses renewable energy. It consists of a dam that stops the flow ofa river and then lets that water low ina controlled manner through turbines to generate electricity. ‘The main energy conversion is: gravitational - kinetic > electrical water flows rapidly gener water stored throug Benester generates behind dam pipesto Seticty as potential turbine energy turbine rotates generator Advantages: renewable, no pollution Disadvantages: unreliable as it relies on rain and rivers, difficult to find a proper location to build Tidal Power Station Like hydroelectric power stations, tidal power stations make use of water stored behind a dam to generate electricity. However, the water behind the dam is filed by making use of the oceans high and low tides. ‘The main energy convers gravitational + kinetic + electrical HIGH TIDE Lowe during high a generator produces during low tidewater Benerator produces clecticty tide water electricity flows out ocean reservoir flowing water turns flowing water turns turbine turbine Advantages: renewable, no pollution Disadvantages: unreliable, low energy output, dificult to find a location to build ‘Cambridge IGCSE Physles CG Mohammed Ali ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS Waves Some power stations use turbines floating in water that make use ofthe natural kinetic energy ofthe ‘waves to generate electricity, Basically, waves hit the turbine rotating the generator which then produce electricity. ‘The main energy conversion is: kinetic > electrical waves turn the turbines Aurbines rotate generators ‘erierators produce electricity Advantages: renewable, no pollution Disadvantages: unreliable as it relies on waves coming and going, low energy output Category 3: No Water Wind Turbines ‘Wind turbines use the kinetic energy from the wind to generate renewable electricity. The idea is super simple. High speed wind rotates the turbines which rotates the generator, generating electricity (Kinetic to electrical). The biggest problem is finding a location with high wind speeds, ‘The main energy conversion is: I kinetic + electrical Wind turns turbines Generator produces electricity “Advantages: Renewable, no pollution ‘Disadvantages: unreliable as it relies on wind speed that can change, low energy output, needs a Jot of space with high-speed wind jdge IGCSE Physics cy Metanined Ai ‘Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT 11 GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS Solar Colls ‘These cells convert ight energy from the sun directly to electricity The main energy conversion is; light + electrical Lght from sun reaches panels to erate electricity Advantages: renewable, no pollution Disadvantages: unreliable as it does not generate electricity a night, needs a lot of space with good sunlight Solar Heaters (Panels) The thermal energy from the sun can also be used to heat water. Cold water flows through the pipes and the sun heats up the water. This helps us save energy (and money) by not using electricity or gas to heat the water. THE SUN ‘The Sun provides us with light and heat. Energy from the sun is released through a reaction called. nuclear fusion. Two small nuclei (hydrogen) are joined together to create a large nucleus (helium), and this releases a LOT of heat and light energy. Additionally, the sun is considered the main source of alot of energy that we have here on earth. 1. Coal/Oil: Fossil fuels were originally living creatures which were previously alive because of theSun, 2, Hydroelectric: The Sun evaporates the ocean's water, creating clouds that rain down to form lakes and rivers. 3. Wind: temperature differences between different regions of the earth cause the air to flow, and these temperature differences are due to the Sun. ‘The Sun is not the source of energy for geothermal, nuclear and tidal power stations. | Cambridge 1GCSE Physics ch ‘Mohammed Ali Scanned with |\CamScannerUNIT GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS | ee erie 1,8, PRESSURE neeiaiennitionn CHAPTER SUMMARY Pressure is defined as the force per unit area. Pon “a As the area decreases, pressure increases, As the area increases, pressure decreases. Pressure under a liquid increase as the depth and density of the liquid increases. [Total pressure under aliquid is equal to the sum of liquid and atmospheric pressure. Puguia = pgh PRESSURE Pressure is defined as: STS ET Bic force per ink area TT) and is calculated using: ‘The unit of measurement of pressure is Pascal (Pa), s0 long as the force isin N and area in m*. Pressure is the reason the tip ofa nail hurts when pressed against your hand, but the back does not. the small area causes oe extremely high twee the large area causes pressure, causing the very low pressure, so nail to go through the {) thenail doesn’t break surface i ‘through the surface __ él tis also the reason a sharp-edged knife can cut easily but the side of the blade does nothing. ‘The next image shows two identical blocks, one placed vertically, and one placed horizontally. The horizontal block applies less pressure because itis applying the same force as the vertical block (came weight) but over a larger area, Cambridge IGCSE Physics 49 ‘Mohammed Ali Scanned with |CamScannerUNIT: GENERAL PIIYSICS AND MECHANICS Solved Example “An IGCSE student lays down on her bed. She has a mass of 40 kg and the area in contact with the bed is 1.5m?. Calculate the pressure she exerts on the bed. ‘The question provided us with the area ofthe student with the bed but we do not have a value of force. The force here is the weight of the student so that should be our first step. W = mg = 40x98 =39.2.N ‘Now we can use the pressure formula to calculate the pressure she exerts on the bed. 26.1 Pa PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS ‘When you go swimming and decide to dive deep, your ears start hurting, That's because the weight of the water itself is applying pressure on your body. The deeper you go, the greater that pressure. Pressure in liquids does not depend on force or area. In fact, changing the area has no effect on iquid pressure. Liquid pressure is affected by two other variables: 1. The depth of the liquid (h) pressure ofthe liquid increases as depth increases and vie versa 2, The density of the liquid (p) using a liquid that is more dense increases the pressure and vice versa water : {more water = dense) Te Tow pressure Tigh pressure ‘ame pressure Tow pressure igh pressu Note that area has no effeet. Ifyou have two containers filled with the same liguid and to the same eight, then the pressure at the bottom of both containers willbe the same. Scanned with |\CamScannerUNIT 1 GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS Total pressure underwater ‘When you're underwater, there are actually two sources of pressure, the pressure ofthe liquid pressing down on you and the pressure of the atmosphere pressing dovn on the liquid surface. pressure of atmosphere Meaning that the total pressure acting on your bodly is the sum of the liquid pressure and the atmospheric pressure. Calculating liquid pressure ‘We can calculate liquid pressure usi I © Puguta = Pg Recall that p is density, g is the acceleration of freefall 9 8m/s* and h is the depth of the liquid. Solved Example ‘student accidentally dropped his phone in a swimming pool while taking a selfie. It drops to the bottom of the pool which is 4 m deep. What is the pressure of the liquid acting on the phone? (density of water 1000 kg/m:). This one is quite direct. Just substitute the given values into the formula and get the answer. Piiquia = pgh = 1000 x 9.8 x 4 = 39 200 Pa . Mohammed All (Cambridge IGCSE Physics Scanned with |\CamScanner