English

Gerunds
Sure! Gerunds are words that end in "-ing" and function as nouns in
sentences. They're formed by adding "-ing" to a verb. Here are four
examples:

• Running is good exercise. (In this sentence, "running" is a gerund. It's

the subject of the sentence, acting like a noun.)
• She enjoys swimming in the lake. (Here, "swimming" is a gerund too.
It's the object of the verb "enjoys," showing what she enjoys doing.)
• His favorite activity is painting. (Again, "painting" is a gerund. It's the
predicate nominative, renaming the subject "activity.")
• They are interested in learning new languages. (In this sentence,
"learning" is a gerund. It's the object of the preposition "in," indicating
what they are interested in.)

Subject Gerunds: These gerunds act as the subject of the sentence.

Example:

Swimming is fun. (In this sentence, "swimming" is the subject gerund

because it's what the sentence is about.)

Subject Complement Gerunds: These gerunds come after a linking verb

and rename the subject.

Example:

Her favorite hobby is painting. (Here, "painting" is a subject complement

gerund because it renames the subject "hobby.")

Object Complement Gerunds: These gerunds come after a direct object

and rename it.

Example:

She found swimming relaxing. (In this sentence, "swimming" is an object

complement gerund because it renames the direct object "activity.")
Direct Object Gerunds: These gerunds receive the action of the verb
directly.

Example:

He enjoys reading books. (In this sentence, "reading" is a direct object

gerund because it receives the action of the verb "enjoys.")

Object of Preposition Gerunds: These gerunds come after a preposition

and show what the preposition relates to.

Example:

She is interested in learning new things. (Here, "learning" is an object of

the preposition gerund because it comes after the preposition "in" and
shows what she's interested in.)

Subject of Preposition Gerunds: These gerunds come after a preposition

and function as the subject of the prepositional phrase.

Example:

Swimming with dolphins is an amazing experience. (In this sentence,

"swimming" is a subject of the preposition gerund because it comes after
the preposition "with" and functions as the subject of the prepositional
phrase "with dolphins.")

Punctuations
Period (.): Used at the end of a sentence that is a statement or to indicate
an abbreviation.

Comma (,): Used to separate items in a list, set off introductory phrases,
separate clauses in a compound sentence, and in various other situations
to clarify meaning.

Question Mark (?): Placed at the end of a sentence to indicate a question.

Exclamation Mark (!): Indicates strong emotion or emphasis at the end of

a sentence.

Colon (:): Used to introduce a list, an explanation, or a quotation.

Semicolon (;): Used to connect closely related independent clauses or to

separate items in a list when the items contain commas.
Quotation Marks (" "): Used to indicate direct speech, quotations, or to
highlight specific words or phrases.

Apostrophe ('): Used to indicate possession or to form contractions.

Parentheses ( ): Used to enclose extra information that is not essential to

the main meaning of the sentence or to indicate an aside.

Dash (– or —): Used to indicate a sudden change in thought, to set off

parenthetical elements, or to emphasize information.

Ellipsis (...): Indicates that a portion of the text has been omitted, often
used to show a pause in speech or thought.

Slash (/): Used to indicate a choice between alternatives, to separate lines

of poetry in text, or to represent "per" in measurements or abbreviations.

Brackets ([ ]): Used to enclose added information within a quotation or to

clarify meaning.

Hyphen (-): Used to join words together, especially compound words, or to

divide words at the end of a line of text.

Indirect and Direct speech

Direct Speech:

Direct speech is when you quote someone's exact words. You use
quotation marks to indicate the exact words spoken. Here are some
examples:

1. She said, "I love ice cream."

• Here, "I love ice cream" is directly quoted, and the quotation
marks show that these are the exact words spoken by "She."

2. He exclaimed, "What a beautiful day!"

• Again, "What a beautiful day!" is directly quoted, and the

quotation marks indicate that it's what "He" said exactly.

3. "Let's go to the park," they suggested.

• Here, the entire sentence is direct speech, as it's what "they"

suggested, directly quoted.
Now, let's move on to indirect speech:

Indirect Speech (also known as reported speech):

Indirect speech is when you report what someone said without quoting
their exact words. Instead, you convey the meaning of what was said.
Here are examples of indirect speech:

1. Direct Speech: She said, "I love ice cream."

• Indirect Speech: She said that she loved ice cream.

• In indirect speech, we report what was said without using

quotation marks. We also change the tense of the verb ('love'
becomes 'loved') because we're reporting what was said at a
different time.

2. Direct Speech: He exclaimed, "What a beautiful day!"

• Indirect Speech: He exclaimed that it was a beautiful day.

• Again, we're not quoting the exact words but conveying the
meaning. We also change the pronoun ('it') and the tense of the
verb ('is' becomes 'was').

3. Direct Speech: "Let's go to the park," they suggested.

• Indirect Speech: They suggested going to the park.

• In this example, we use the verb 'suggest' followed by the -ing

form of the verb ('going') to report the suggestion indirectly.

Types of sentences
Simple Sentence:

A simple sentence contains one independent clause, which has a subject

and a verb and expresses a complete thought. Here's an example:

• I love to read.

• This sentence has one subject ("I") and one verb ("love"),
expressing a complete thought.

Compound Sentence:
A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses joined
by coordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," or "or." Each clause could
stand alone as a separate sentence. Here's an example:

• I love to read, but my sister prefers to watch TV.

• This sentence has two independent clauses joined by the

coordinating conjunction "but."

Complex Sentence:

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one

dependent clause. A dependent clause has a subject and a verb but
cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. Complex sentences often use
subordinating conjunctions like "because," "although," or "while" to join
the clauses. Here's an example:

• Although I love to read, I don't have much time.

• This sentence has one independent clause ("I don't have much
time") and one dependent clause ("Although I love to read").

Compound-Complex Sentence:

A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses

and at least one dependent clause. It's essentially a combination of a
compound sentence and a complex sentence. Here's an example:

• I love to read, but I don't have much time because I work full-time.

• This sentence has two independent clauses ("I love to read" and
"I don't have much time") and one dependent clause ("because I
work full-time").

Suffixes
1. able/-ible: This suffix means "capable of" or "able to be."

• Example: Enjoyable, readable, flexible

2. -ant/-ent: This suffix usually forms adjectives and means

"characterized by" or "pertaining to."

• Example: Pleasant, dependent, consistent

3. -ful: This suffix means "full of" or "characterized by."

 • Example: Beautiful, thankful, playful

4. -less: This suffix means "without" or "lacking."

• Example: Careless, fearless, homeless

5. -ly: This suffix forms adverbs and means "in the manner of" or
"characterized by."

• Example: Quickly, happily, slowly

6. -wise: This suffix means "in relation to" or "in the direction of."

• Example: Clockwise, lengthwise, otherwise

7. -ward: This suffix indicates direction or movement.

• Example: Forward, backward, eastward

8. -like: This suffix means "similar to" or "resembling."

• Example: Childlike, lifelike, businesslike

9. -ous: This suffix means "full of" or "characterized by."

• Example: Joyous, courageous, dangerous

10. -some: This suffix means "characterized by" or "tending to."

• Example: Awesome, handsome, tiresome

11. -tious/-cious: This suffix means "characterized by" or "full of."

• Example: Ambitious, conscious, delicious

12. -ish: This suffix means "somewhat" or "to some extent."

• Example: Smallish, greenish, childish

13. -ical: This suffix means "related to" or "pertaining to."

• Example: Musical, comical, typical

14. -ic: This suffix forms adjectives and means "related to" or
"pertaining to."

• Example: Economic, historic, academic

15. -ian: This suffix means "pertaining to" or "one who."

• Example: Musician, historian, pediatrician

 16. -cracy: This suffix means "rule by" or "government by."

• Example: Democracy, autocracy, aristocracy

17. -logy: This suffix means "the study of" or "science of."

• Example: Biology, psychology, geology

Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions:

Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, or independent clauses of

equal grammatical importance. They are commonly remembered by the
acronym FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Here are some examples:

1. For: I like to swim, for it's good exercise.

2. And: She likes both tea and coffee.

3. Nor: He neither reads nor writes.

4. But: I want to go, but I have to work.

5. Or: Would you like tea or coffee?

6. Yet: She was tired, yet she kept running.

7. So: It was raining, so we stayed indoors.

Subordinating Conjunctions:

Subordinating conjunctions join independent clauses with dependent

clauses. They show a dependent relationship between the clauses, indicating
that one clause is less important or dependent on the other. Here are some
examples:

1. Because: I went to bed early because I was tired.

2. Although: Although it was raining, we went for a walk.

3. While: He reads while she watches TV.

4. If: If it rains, we will stay indoors.

5. Since: Since it's your birthday, we'll celebrate.

6. After: We'll eat after we finish work.

 7. Before: Finish your homework before you go out.

Clauses
Independent Clause:

An independent clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a

complete sentence. It expresses a complete thought and does not rely on
any other part of the sentence to give it meaning. Here are some examples:

1. She goes to the gym every morning.

• In this sentence, "She goes to the gym every morning" is an

independent clause because it forms a complete thought on its
own.

2. He likes to read novels.

• Similarly, "He likes to read novels" is also an independent clause

because it can stand alone as a complete sentence.

Dependent Clause:

A dependent clause, also known as a subordinate clause, is a group of words

that contains a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone as a complete
sentence. It relies on an independent clause to give it meaning. Here are
some examples:

1. When she goes to the gym

• This is a dependent clause because it doesn't express a

complete thought on its own. We need more information to know
what happens when she goes to the gym.

2. Because he likes to read novels

• Similarly, "Because he likes to read novels" is a dependent

clause because it doesn't provide a complete idea. We need to
know what happens because he likes to read novels.

Combining Clauses:

You can combine independent and dependent clauses to form complex

sentences. When an independent and a dependent clause are joined
together, they create a complex sentence. Here are some examples:
 1. She goes to the gym every morning, because she wants to stay fit.

• In this sentence, "She goes to the gym every morning" is an

independent clause, and "because she wants to stay fit" is a
dependent clause. Together, they form a complex sentence.

2. He likes to read novels, even though he's busy with work.

• Here, "He likes to read novels" is an independent clause, and

"even though he's busy with work" is a dependent clause.
Together, they create a complex sentence.

Sentence Pattern
1. Subject-Verb (SV):

• Definition: A sentence pattern where a subject is followed

directly by a verb. It's the most basic sentence structure.

• Examples:

• She sings.

• They dance.

• He sleeps.

• The cat purrs.

• The sun shines.

• Dogs bark.

• Birds chirp.

2. Subject-Verb-Object (SVO):

• Definition: A sentence pattern where a subject performs an

action (the verb) on an object. The object receives the action of
the verb.

• Examples:

• She eats apples.

• They read books.

• He kicks the ball.

 • The dog chases the cat.

• We play soccer.

• They watch movies.

• He writes letters.

3. Subject-Verb-Complement (SVC):

• Definition: A sentence pattern where a subject is followed by a

verb and then a complement, which provides additional
information about the subject or describes its state.

• Examples:

• She is happy.

• He seems tired.

• They appear confident.

• It feels cold.

• She became a doctor.

• He remained silent.

• They were excited.

4. Subject-Verb-Noun (SVN):

• Definition: A sentence pattern where a subject is followed by a

verb and then a noun, which acts as either an object or a
complement in the sentence.

• Examples:

• She is a doctor. (noun as a complement)

• He became a teacher. (noun as a complement)

• They elected him president. (noun as an object)

• She made a cake. (noun as an object)

• He painted a picture. (noun as an object)

• They built a house. (noun as an object)

 • She wrote a letter. (noun as an object)

Syntax
Syntax (Imperative, Exclamatory, Declarative, and Interrogative)

1. Imperative Sentences:

• Definition: Imperative sentences are used to give commands,

make requests, or offer advice. They often begin with a verb in
the base form (without the subject "you" explicitly stated).

• Examples:

• Close the door.

• Please pass the salt.

• Study hard for the exam.

• Be quiet during the movie.

• Listen carefully to the instructions.

• Don't forget to call me.

• Take out the trash.

2. Exclamatory Sentences:

• Definition: Exclamatory sentences are used to express strong

emotions or feelings. They often end with an exclamation mark
(!) and can begin with words like "what" or "how" followed by an
adjective or adverb.

• Examples:

• What a beautiful day it is!

• How delicious the food tastes!

• What a surprise to see you here!

• How wonderful the view looks!

• What a great idea that is!

 • How amazing the performance was!

• What a terrible mistake he made!

3. Declarative Sentences:

• Definition: Declarative sentences are used to make statements or

convey information. They provide facts, opinions, or
explanations. Most sentences in English are declarative.

• Examples:

• She is a talented musician.

• The sky is blue.

• I enjoy reading books.

• They live in a big house.

• Dogs make great pets.

• The meeting starts at 9 AM.

• The sun sets in the west.

4. Interrogative Sentences:

• Definition: Interrogative sentences are used to ask questions or

seek information. They often begin with a question word (who,
what, where, when, why, how) or an auxiliary verb (be, do, have)
followed by the subject.

• Examples:

• What is your name?

• Where do you live?

• When is the concert?

• Why are you late?

• How do you spell that word?

• Who is coming to the party?

• Have you finished your homework?

Connectives
1. Addition:

• Definition: Connectives used to add similar or related information

or ideas.

• Examples:

• And: I like pizza and pasta.

• Also: She is good at singing. Also, she plays the guitar.

• Furthermore: He enjoys playing soccer. Furthermore, he

excels in basketball.

• Moreover: The movie was entertaining. Moreover, the

acting was superb.

• In addition: We need to buy eggs. In addition, we should get

some milk.

2. Cause and Effect:

• Definition: Connectives used to show the relationship between a

cause and its effect.

• Examples:

• Because: He missed the bus because he overslept.

• Since: Since it's raining, we'll stay indoors.

• As a result: She studied hard. As a result, she passed the

exam.

• Therefore: He didn't eat breakfast. Therefore, he was

hungry.

• Consequently: The store was closed. Consequently, we

couldn't buy groceries.

3. Contrast:

• Definition: Connectives used to show differences or contrasts

between ideas.
 • Examples:

• But: He is rich, but he is not happy.

• However: She is tired. However, she refuses to rest.

• On the other hand: He loves dogs. On the other hand, she

prefers cats.

• In contrast: He enjoys the beach. In contrast, she prefers

the mountains.

• Yet: The food is delicious, yet he refuses to eat.

4. Emphasis:

• Definition: Connectives used to emphasize or highlight a

particular point or aspect.

• Examples:

• Indeed: It was a challenging journey, indeed, but we made

it.

• Certainly: She is certainly the best candidate for the job.

• Surely: You can surely understand the importance of this

project.

• Absolutely: The decision was absolutely the right one.

• Without a doubt: He is without a doubt the most talented

musician.

5. Reason:

• Definition: Connectives used to introduce reasons or

explanations for a particular situation or action.

• Examples:

• As: As it was getting late, we decided to leave.

• Because of: We couldn't go outside because of the rain.

• Due to: The game was canceled due to bad weather.

• Owing to: The project was delayed owing to unforeseen

circumstances.
 • Thanks to: We won the match thanks to our teamwork.

6. Sequence:

• Definition: Connectives used to indicate the order or sequence of

events.

• Examples:

• First: First, we need to prepare the ingredients.

• Then: Then, we mix everything together.

• Next: Next, we pour the batter into the pan.

• After that: After that, we bake the cake in the oven.

• Finally: Finally, we decorate the cake with frosting.

7. Choice:

• Definition: Connectives used to present alternatives or choices.

• Examples:

• Or: Do you want tea or coffee?

• Either...or: You can choose either the blue shirt or the red
one.

• Whether...or: Whether we go by car or by train, we'll reach

our destination.

• Neither...nor: Neither the cat nor the dog was found.

• Instead: We decided to stay home instead of going out.

Similes:

Definition: Similes are figures of speech that directly compare two different
things using the words "like" or "as" to create a vivid image or convey a
particular meaning.

Examples:

Her smile is as bright as the sun.

He runs like a cheetah.

The watermelon was red like a rose.

His voice was smooth as silk.

She's as brave as a lion.

Metaphors:

Definition: Metaphors are figures of speech that imply a comparison between

two unlike things by stating that one thing is another. Unlike similes,
metaphors do not use "like" or "as" to make the comparison.

Examples:

Time is a thief.

Her eyes are the windows to her soul.

The world is a stage.

Life is a journey.

Love is a battlefield.

Rhyme:

Definition: Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds at the end of words,

usually found in poetry or songs. Rhyme adds musicality and rhythm to the
text.

Examples:

Twinkle, twinkle, little star,

How I wonder what you are.

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,

Humpty Dumpty had a great fall.

Mary had a little lamb,

Its fleece was white as snow.

Roses are red,

Violets are blue,

Sugar is sweet,

And so are you.

Rhythm:

Definition: Rhythm is the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in

language. It creates a sense of flow and musicality in writing and speech.

Examples:

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? (iambic pentameter)

Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary. (trochaic
octameter)

Two roads diverged in a wood, and I— (iambic tetrameter)

To be or not to be, that is the question. (iambic pentameter)

Alliteration:

Definition: Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in

neighboring words or syllables. It adds rhythm and emphasis to the text.

Examples:

Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

Sally sells seashells by the seashore.

Betty Botter bought some butter, but she said this butter's bitter.

She sells sea shells down by the sea shore.

Hyperbole:

Definition: Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement or claim not meant to be

taken literally. It is used for emphasis, humor, or to create a dramatic effect.

Examples:

I've told you a million times.

It's so hot, I'm melting!

This bag weighs a ton.

I'm so hungry, I could eat a horse.

Personification:

Definition: Personification is a figure of speech in which human qualities are

attributed to non-human entities or objects.

Examples:

The wind whispered through the trees.

The flowers danced in the breeze.

The sun smiled down on us.

Time flies when you're having fun.

Onomatopoeia:
Definition: Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which words imitate the
sound they describe.

Examples:

Buzz (sound of a bee)

Boom (sound of thunder)

Hiss (sound of a snake)

Sizzle (sound of frying food)

Imagery
1. Visual Imagery:

• Definition: Visual imagery appeals to the sense of sight, creating

mental images that evoke colors, shapes, and scenes.

• Examples:

• The golden sun dipped below the horizon, painting the sky
with hues of pink and orange.

• The forest was a lush green carpet, with sunlight filtering

through the dense canopy.

• Her eyes sparkled like sapphires in the sunlight.

• The old farmhouse stood on a hill, surrounded by fields of

waving wheat.

2. Auditory Imagery:

• Definition: Auditory imagery appeals to the sense of hearing,

creating mental images that evoke sounds and noises.

• Examples:

• The leaves rustled softly in the breeze, creating a soothing

melody.

• The waves crashed against the shore, their roar echoing in

the distance.
 • The birds chirped and sang, filling the air with their
cheerful tunes.

• The wind howled through the trees, sounding like a distant

wail.

3. Gustatory Imagery:

• Definition: Gustatory imagery appeals to the sense of taste,

creating mental images that evoke flavors and tastes.

• Examples:

• The soup was rich and savory, with hints of garlic and
herbs.

• The chocolate melted on her tongue, sweet and creamy.

• The tangy citrus burst of the orange made her mouth

water.

• The coffee was bitter and strong, waking her senses with
its robust flavor.

4. Olfactory Imagery:

• Definition: Olfactory imagery appeals to the sense of smell,

creating mental images that evoke scents and odors.

• Examples:

• The air was filled with the scent of fresh-cut grass and
blooming flowers.

• The bakery smelled of warm bread and cinnamon, making

her stomach growl.

• The perfume wafted through the room, leaving a trail of

sweet floral fragrance.

• The salty sea breeze carried the tang of saltwater and

seaweed.

5. Tactile Imagery:
 • Definition: Tactile imagery appeals to the sense of touch,
creating mental images that evoke sensations of texture,
temperature, and physical contact.

• Examples:

• The sand was warm and gritty beneath her bare feet as she
walked along the beach.

• The velvet curtains felt soft and smooth to the touch.

• The icy wind nipped at her cheeks, leaving them cold and
numb.

• The rough bark of the tree scratched her palm as she

climbed higher.

Pathetic Fallacy:

Definition: Pathetic fallacy is a literary device where human emotions, traits,

or actions are attributed to nature or inanimate objects. It involves the
portrayal of nature reflecting or echoing the mood or emotions of the
characters or the overall narrative.

Examples:

In Shakespeare's "Macbeth," after the murder of King Duncan, the night is

described as being dark and stormy, reflecting the evil deeds committed.

In Emily Brontë's "Wuthering Heights," the tumultuous weather of the moors

mirrors the intense emotions of the characters, particularly during moments
of conflict or passion.

In John Steinbeck's "The Grapes of Wrath," the scorching heat and drought
during the Dust Bowl era symbolize the hardships and struggles faced by the
Joad family and other migrant workers.

In Edgar Allan Poe's "The Fall of the House of Usher," the decaying mansion
and its surroundings mirror the mental and physical deterioration of the
characters, especially Roderick Usher.
In William Wordsworth's poem "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud," the daffodils
dancing in the breeze convey a sense of joy and serenity that the speaker
experiences.

Oxymoron:

Definition: An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines contradictory

terms or ideas to create a paradoxical effect, often for rhetorical or dramatic
emphasis.

Examples:

Jumbo shrimp (combines the contradictory ideas of "large" and "small").

Deafening silence (combines the contradictory ideas of "sound" and

"silence").

Bittersweet (combines the contradictory ideas of "bitter" and "sweet").

Living dead (combines the contradictory ideas of "alive" and "dead").

Awfully good (combines the contradictory ideas of "bad" and "good").

Irony:

Definition: Irony is a literary device characterized by a contrast between

expectation and reality, where the outcome of events or situations is
different from what is expected. It often involves a discrepancy between
what is said and what is meant, or between what is expected to happen and
what actually happens.

Examples:

Verbal irony: Saying "What a beautiful day!" during a torrential downpour.

Situational irony: A fire station burning down.

Dramatic irony: In William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet," when the

audience knows that Juliet is not actually dead, but Romeo believes she is
and kills himself.

Cosmic irony: A traffic cop getting a speeding ticket.

Socratic irony: When someone pretends to be ignorant to expose the
ignorance or contradictions of others.

Transitional words
1. To Show Time:

• Examples:

• First, next, then, afterwards, meanwhile, subsequently,

finally, eventually, now, later, before, during,
simultaneously, subsequently, afterward, ultimately, at last.

2. To Show Place:

• Examples:

• Here, there, nearby, adjacent to, in front of, behind, above,

below, under, inside, outside, nearby, within, beyond,
beside, alongside, elsewhere.

3. To Show an Idea:

• Examples:

• Furthermore, moreover, additionally, besides, also, in

addition, similarly, likewise, similarly, correspondingly,
furthermore, moreover, conversely, on the contrary, in
contrast, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, whereas.

4. To Compare and Contrast:

• Examples:

• Similarly, likewise, in the same way, equally, likewise,

similarly, in comparison, on the other hand, however,
nevertheless, nonetheless, conversely, whereas, while,
although, yet, in contrast.

5. To Show a Result:

• Examples:

• Consequently, as a result, therefore, thus, hence,

accordingly, so, for this reason, because of this,
 henceforth, subsequently, then, as a consequence, in
consequence.

6. Emphasis:

• Examples:

• Indeed, certainly, surely, without a doubt, in fact, of

course, naturally, definitely, unquestionably, undoubtedly,
clearly, importantly, notably, significantly, crucially.

7. Summary:

• Examples:

• In conclusion, to sum up, in summary, in brief, to conclude,

overall, all in all, ultimately, to summarize, in essence, in
short, briefly, to put it succinctly, to recapitulate.

8. Synthesis:

• Examples:

• Consequently, accordingly, thus, therefore, as a result, so,

then, in turn, as a consequence, hence, subsequently, in
conclusion, to sum up, in summary, ultimately.

Conditional
1. Zero Conditional:

• Structure: If + present simple, present simple

• Usage: Used to express general truths, scientific facts, or

habitual actions.

• Example: If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.

2. First Conditional (also known as the Real Conditional):

• Structure: If + present simple, will + base form of the verb

• Usage: Used to talk about real possibilities or likely future

events.

• Example: If it rains tomorrow, we will stay indoors.

 3. Second Conditional (also known as the Unreal Conditional):

• Structure: If + past simple, would + base form of the verb

• Usage: Used to talk about hypothetical or unlikely situations in

the present or future.

• Example: If I won the lottery, I would buy a house.

4. Third Conditional:

• Structure: If + past perfect, would have + past participle

• Usage: Used to talk about hypothetical situations in the past that

did not happen.

• Example: If she had studied harder, she would have passed the
exam.

5. Mixed Conditionals:

• Structure: Combines elements of different conditionals, often

mixing the past and present tenses.

• Usage: Used to express complex or nuanced hypothetical

situations.

• Example: If she hadn't missed the train (third conditional), she

would be here by now (second conditional).

A tale of two cities

Chapter 19 An opinion
On the tenth morning, Doctor Alexandre Manette awakens fully recovered
and unaware that anything unusual has transpired. Mr. Lorry tactfully
conveys to the Doctor what has happened and asks what caused the relapse
and how it can be prevented. The Doctor explains that he expected the
relapse, which was caused by the revival of certain memories. He believes
that the worst is over and doubts that another relapse could occur; if one did,
it would most likely result from an intense experience that revived those
same memories.

Mr. Lorry also questions the wisdom of keeping the shoemaking bench and
materials, pointing out that their presence reminds the Doctor of the past
that has caused him so much pain. Uneasily agreeing, Doctor Manette
requests that Mr. Lorry dispose of the bench and tools without him.
Therefore, Mr. Lorry and Miss Pross bury the tools and burn the shoemaking
bench after the Doctor leaves to join Lucie and Darnay on their trip.

Chapter 20 A plea
Soon after Lucie and Darnay return from their honeymoon, Carton visits
them. He takes Darnay aside and, in an unusually sincere tone, asks for
Darnay's friendship and apologizes for his rudeness after the trial. Darnay is
casual about the apology, but assures Carton that he has forgotten any past
offences. Carton then asks permission to visit the family occasionally, and
Darnay grants it. Later that evening, after Carton leaves, Darnay comments
on Carton's irresponsible nature, causing Lucie to reprimand him and ask
that he show Carton more consideration in the future.

Chapter 21 Echoing footsteps

Eight years have passed, and the year is 1789. Darnay continues to prosper,
and he and Lucie have had two children — a daughter named Lucie and a son
who lived several years before he died. Both children have been especially
fond of Carton, who visits a few times each year. Carton continues to work
for Stryver, who has married a widow with three sons. Time passes
peacefully for the group in England while turmoil in France seems like "a
dreadful sea rising."Problems in France begin to encroach upon the lives of
those in England when Mr. Lorry appears at the Manette-Darnay home one
night, tired and irritable after a long day at Tellson's. Unrest in France has
caused a run on the Paris branch of Tellson's Bank.

Meanwhile, in France, the residents of Saint Antoine arm themselves with

every type of weapon imaginable and begin to mass in the streets, and the
Defarges lead the crowd in an attack on the Bastille. Once inside the prison,
Defarge goes to Doctor Alexandre Manette's old cell and searches it for
something. Afterward, Defarge joins a group escorting the prison's governor
to the Hotel de Ville. On the way there, the crowd attacks the governor and
beats him to death, and Madame Defarge cuts off his head. In the course of
the turmoil, the revolutionaries rescue seven prisoners from the Bastille and
put the heads of seven guards on pikes.

Chapter 22 The sea still rises

A week after the fall of the Bastille, the revolutionaries learn that Foulon, a
hated official who they thought was dead, is alive and has been captured.
Apparently Foulon, who had said that starving people could eat grass, faked
his death in order to escape the revolutionaries. Upon learning that Foulon is
being held at the Hotel de Ville, Madame Defarge leads a mob to the hotel.
With the help of the Defarges, The Vengeance (Madame Defarge's assistant),
and Jacques Three, the mob seizes Foulon, stuffs his mouth with grass, and
then hangs him from a lamp post. After he dies, they behead him and put his
head on a pike. The crowd then captures Foulon's son-in-law, who has ridden
into Paris under heavy guard. The mob kills him and places his head and
heart on pikes. The men and women of the mob return to their homes that
night, still hungry but happy and hopeful for the future.

Chapter 23 Fire Rises

One July day, a stranger approaches the road-mender and asks for directions
to the Evrémonde chateau. That night, four figures set fire to the chateau and
the villagers watch it burn, making no effort to put it out despite the pleas of
servants from the chateau. Excited by the destruction of the chateau, the
villagers threaten Gabelle, the local tax collector, who hides on his roof
while the villagers pound on his door.

Chapter 24 Drawn to the Loadstone Rock

Three more years have passed, and the French Revolution has succeeded in
removing the royalty and aristocracy from power. France is still unsettled,
however, and many members of the French upper classes who have fled to
England use Tellson's as an information hub. One afternoon at Tellson's,
Darnay and Mr. Lorry discuss Mr. Lorry's impending trip to France, where he
will manage Tellson's Paris office and try to salvage some property and
papers for Tellson customers. Amidst the activity in the bank, Stryver loudly
commiserates with French nobles. When a letter for the Marquis St.
Evrémonde surfaces, several Frenchmen and Stryver make disparaging
comments about the current Marquis St. Evrémonde, unaware that they are
speaking of Darnay. Darnay offers to deliver the letter to the Marquis. When
Darnay reads the letter, he is troubled to find it is from Gabelle, who has
been imprisoned for acting as Darnay's steward. Feeling guilty about
Gabelle's imprisonment and about leaving some matters unfinished, Darnay
resolves to go to France. Idealistically, he even imagines that he might be
able to calm some of the revolutionary fervor. Consequently, he writes letters
explaining the situation to Lucie and Doctor Manette and then departs for
France alone.

Chapter 1 In Secret
Charles Darnay travels through France to Paris, encountering bands of
revolutionaries in every village along the way who condemn him as an
aristocrat and emigrant and allow him to continue on only because of his
letter from Gabelle. A decree has passed, he learns, that sells all the
property of emigrants and condemns them to death. Eventually he is forced
to take an escort of two men with him. Once he arrives in Paris, a prison
tribunal declares him a prisoner "in secret"of La Force prison. Defarge
escorts Darnay to the prison and Darnay asks him to notify Mr. Lorry of his
imprisonment. Defarge refuses. When Darnay enters the prison, the other
prisoners all seem like ghosts to him. The other prisoners express their pity
that he is "in secret"(Darnay doesn't know what this means). Darnay is taken
to a small cell where he is locked up alone. He cannot help being reminded
of Doctor Alexandre Manette and thinking of Lucie.

Chapter 2 The grindstone

Mr. Lorry is troubled by the violence in the city as he sits in his rooms at the
Paris branch of Tellson's Bank. Suddenly, Lucie and Doctor Alexandre
Manette rush into the room, and Lucie frantically tells him that the
revolutionaries have taken Charles prisoner. A mob enters the courtyard
outside and begins sharpening its weapons on a large grindstone there.
Encouraging Lucie to be calm, Mr. Lorry sends her into another room and
informs Doctor Manette that the mob is butchering the prisoners of La Force.
As a former inmate of the Bastille, Doctor Manette has some influence with
the revolutionaries, so he leaves to try to save Darnay's life.

Chapter 3 The Shadow

Despite his personal devotion to Lucie and her daughter, Mr. Lorry recognizes
as a businessman that keeping the family of a La Force prisoner at Tellson's
could endanger the bank. Consequently, he finds a nearby apartment for them
and leaves Jerry Cruncher there to protect them. The day drags on with no
word from Doctor Alexandre Manette. Finally, that evening, Monsieur Defarge
delivers a message to Mr. Lorry from the Doctor, which states that Darnay is
safe for the moment and that Defarge has a note from Darnay to Lucie. As Mr.
Lorry takes Defarge to see Lucie, Madame Defarge and The Vengeance join
them. Defarge explains that the women want to see Lucie and her child so that
they can identify and protect her, should the need arise. After reading the
message from her husband, Lucie thanks Madame Defarge and begs her to
help Darnay. Madame Defarge responds coldly to Lucie's entreaties. When
Miss Pross and young Lucie present themselves to Madame Defarge, she
barely notices Miss Pross, focusing instead on young Lucie and casting a
literal and figurative shadow on both Lucie and her daughter.

Chapter 4 Calm in Storm

After four days, Doctor Alexandre Manette finally returns from the prison. He
tells Mr. Lorry how he tried to influence the court tribunal to free his son-in-
law, but only secured a guarantee of Darnay's safety. He also recounts the
erratic behavior of the mob, which one minute would violently attack
condemned prisoners and the next minute would exuberantly cheer the freeing
of other prisoners. Feeling strong in his power as a Bastille survivor, Doctor
Manette is confident that he will be able to free Darnay. Despite the Doctor's
efforts, though, Darnay remains in prison for a year and three months. In the
meantime, the Doctor becomes well known throughout Paris and gains status
as the inspecting physician for three prisons.

Chapter 5 The wood sawyer

Throughout Darnay's imprisonment, Lucie goes to the prison for two hours
each day hoping that her husband will be able to see her. The spot where he
might view her, however, is next to a woodcutter's house. The woodcutter,
formerly the road-mender, torments Lucie by pretending to saw off her and her
daughter's heads; Lucie gives him money to leave her alone. One day, a wild
mob comes dancing down the street and surrounds a frightened Lucie. As it
moves on, Doctor Manette tells Lucie to blow Darnay a kiss because Darnay is
watching. As she does so, Madame Defarge walks by and greets them. The
Doctor tells Lucie that Darnay's trial is scheduled for the next day.

Chapter 6 Triumph
At the trial the next day, Darnay offers an articulate and well-planned defense
of himself. However, the jury remains unconvinced of his innocence
until Doctor Alexandre Manette and Mr. Lorry testify on his behalf. The court
spectators who called for Darnay's head at the beginning of the trial cheer
wildly when the jury votes to free him. As the crowd swarms around Darnay
and carries him home, the rapid change in his situation bewilders him. When
he reaches home, he embraces Lucie and his daughter, and he and Lucie pray
together in thanks. Afterward, Lucie embraces her father, who is proud of what
he has accomplished.

Chapter 7 A Knock at the Door

Although the Doctor voices confidence in the validity of Darnay's
release, Lucie remains fearful for her husband's safety. As the family enjoys a
quiet evening together, Miss Pross leaves on a shopping expedition with Jerry
Cruncher. Soon afterward, four rough men pound on the door and enter the
apartment. They inform Darnay that he is a prisoner again, based on
accusations from three people: Monsieur and Madame Defarge and someone
else whom they refuse to name. Darnay's new trial will take place the next
day.

Chapter 8 A Hand at Cards

As Miss Pross and Jerry Cruncher enter a wine-shop, Miss Pross screams at
the sight of a man about to leave whom she recognizes as her brother, Solomon
Pross. Nervous about the attention Miss Pross is drawing to him, Solomon tells
her to be quiet, and they leave the shop. Cruncher follows, trying to remember
where he's seen the man before. When they reach a dark street corner, Sydney
Carton, who has recently arrived in Paris, joins them and identifies Solomon
Pross as John Barsad, the police spy from Darnay's trial in England. Carton
states that Barsad is now a prison informer and threatens Barsad into going
to Tellson's with him. Jerry accompanies the two men after they take a
distraught Miss Pross to her home.

Chapter 9 The Game Made

With Carton and Barsad in the other room, Mr. Lorry expresses his outrage at
Jerry's grave robbing activities and tells Jerry that he will be fired from
Tellson's. Never quite admitting his wrongdoing, Jerry asks Mr. Lorry to let
his son take his place at Tellson's and tells him that he will become a regular
gravedigger to make up for the bodies he dug up.
Carton and Barsad emerge from the other room, and Barsad and Jerry leave.
Carton tells Mr. Lorry that the best he can do is to secure access to Darnay
in his cell. Mr. Lorry begins to weep as the implications of Darnay's second
arrest sink in. Moved by Mr. Lorry's tears, Carton tells him in a sincere tone
that he regards him as a father-figure who has led a good and useful life, and
that people will mourn Mr. Lorry and remember him when he dies. Carton
adds that a long life wasted would be a miserable one. When Mr. Lorry leaves
Tellson's to comfort Lucie and her father, Carton walks the streets all night
with the biblical passage, "I am the resurrection and the life,"echoing in his
mind. At one point, he drops in at a chemist's shop to make a purchase.

The next day, Carton attends Darnay's new trial. The bloodthirsty jury
includes the malevolent Jacques Three. The public prosecutor opens the trial
by stating that Darnay's three accusers are the Defarges and Doctor
Alexandre Manette. The Doctor protests this statement, but is reprimanded.
Defarge then explains that he retrieved a written paper from the Doctor's old
cell in the Bastille. The paper was written by Doctor Manette and contains
his denouncement.

Chapter 10 The Substance of the Shadow

In December 1757, two noblemen sought out Doctor Alexandre Manette and
requested his medical expertise. Secretly taking him to a country house
outside of Paris, the men — who Doctor Manette observed were twin
brothers — ordered the Doctor to care for a delirious young peasant woman
and her dying brother. The woman's brother told the Doctor that the
noblemen had raped the woman and caused the deaths of the woman's
husband and father. After taking a second, younger sister to safety, the young
man came after the noblemen who held his sister captive. One of the
brothers stabbed him, mortally wounding him. As the peasant man died, he
cursed the brothers and their family line, signaling the curse with a cross of
blood. The peasant woman died shortly afterward, and the brothers
instructed Doctor Manette to remain silent about the incident.

Troubled by what he had witnessed, the Doctor decided to write a letter

reporting the episode to the Court. Before he delivered the letter, however,
the older twin's wife visited him, revealing that the brothers' family name
was Evrémonde. The woman explained that she hoped the Doctor could help
her to find the surviving member of the peasant family — the younger sister
whom the young man had taken away. When the Doctor was unable to help
her, she told her young son, Charles, to pledge himself to righting the wrong
committed by his uncle and father.

Doctor Manette then personally delivered the letter and that night was
kidnapped and secretly jailed by the Evrémonde brothers, who had seen his
letter. At the end of his narrative, the Doctor denounced the Evrémonde
family. After the document has been read, the courtroom erupts into
bloodthirsty cries against Darnay, and the jury sentences Darnay to death on
the following day.

Chapter 11 Dusk
Darnay's death sentence devastates Lucie, but she manages to control her
shock for her husband's sake. As the crowd jubilantly leaves, the court
grants her permission to embrace her husband one last time. She and Darnay
say their farewells, and Doctor Alexandre Manette approaches them. Darnay
tries to comfort his father-in-law, but the Doctor only wrings his hands and
cries out. When the guards lead Darnay away, Lucie faints. Carton picks her
up and carries her to the waiting coach.

Back at Lucie and the Doctor's lodgings, young Lucie begs Carton to help her
parents. Carton kisses the still-unconscious Lucie goodbye, whispering, "A
life you love,"and then urges Doctor Manette to try to influence the judges
one last time. After arranging to meet with Mr. Lorry and the Doctor later that
evening, Carton leaves.

Chapter 12 Darkness
Deciding to make himself known to the local citizens, Carton goes to the
Defarge wine-shop. Madame Defarge notices the resemblance between
Carton and Darnay, but she is soon convinced that Carton is not Darnay
because Carton pretends that he knows very little French. As Carton appears
to be absorbed in a newspaper, the Defarges, The Vengeance, and Jacques
Three discuss whether or not they should also denounce Lucie, her daughter,
and Doctor Alexandre Manette. Madame Defarge reveals that she is the
younger sister of the peasant woman who was raped by the Evrémondes and
demands vengeance for the murder of her entire family. Defarge, however,
believes the killing should be limited.

After listening to the discussion, Carton goes to Mr. Lorry to tell him of the
danger to Lucie and her family. The Doctor appears, reduced again to his
demented state and searching for his shoemaking bench. After calming the
distraught man, Carton instructs Mr. Lorry to have a carriage and everyone's
passport ready at two o'clock the following afternoon.

Chapter 13 Fifty-two
On the eve of his execution, Darnay comes to terms with his imminent death.
After writing letters to Lucie, Doctor Alexandre Manette, and Mr. Lorry, he
spends the night restlessly trying to sleep. The next day, Carton enters the
cell at one o'clock in the afternoon and exchanges clothes with him. Then,
while Carton dictates a letter to Darnay, Carton drugs him so that he loses
consciousness. Two guards, who believe that Darnay is Carton and that
Carton is Darnay, then carry Darnay out of the prison. At two o'clock, guards
take Carton from the cell to a larger room in which the fifty-two prisoners
that the court has scheduled for execution are assembling. No one notices
that he is not Darnay, except for a meek little seamstress who asks Carton to
hold her hand on the way to the guillotine.

Meanwhile, the coach containing Mr. Lorry, Doctor Manette, Lucie, Darnay,
and young Lucie passes through the gates of Paris, where they identify
Darnay — who is still unconscious — as Carton. Despite delays and fears of
discovery, the group escapes France.

Chapter 14 The Knitting Done

Madame Defarge tells The Vengeance and Jacques Three that she plans to
denounce Lucie, Lucie's daughter, and Doctor Alexandre Manette that
evening after Darnay's execution. She then leaves for Lucie's residence,
knowing she will find Lucie grieving for Darnay. Showing grief for an enemy
of the Republic is considered treasonous, and Madame Defarge plans to use
Lucie's grief against her.

Meanwhile, Miss Pross and Jerry make preparations to leave and plan to
meet up with Mr. Lorry's coach later. Anxious for the others' safety, Jerry
vows that he will stop grave robbing and beating his wife for praying if Mr.
Lorry and his group return safely to England. Deciding that two vehicles
leaving their residence in one day might be suspicious, Miss Pross tells Jerry
to wait for her with a carriage outside Notre-Dame cathedral at three o'clock.

Madame Defarge enters the apartment as Miss Pross is preparing to leave.

Thinking quickly, Miss Pross closes the doors to all of the rooms and
pretends to be guarding Lucie and her family. Although the two women can't
understand each other's languages, they recognize that they are enemies.
After calling for Lucie and the Doctor, Madame Defarge suspects that they
have fled and tries to enter the room that Miss Pross is blocking. The two
women struggle and Madame Defarge pulls out a gun. Miss Pross strikes it
aside and the gun goes off, killing Madame Defarge and permanently
deafening Miss Pross. After locking the apartment, Miss Pross rushes to the
cathedral to meet Jerry and escape.

Chapter 15 The Footsteps Die Out For Ever

As the carts carrying the fifty-two prisoners roll through the Paris streets,
people crowd to see Evrémonde go to his death. In his cart, Carton ignores
the yelling crowds, focusing instead on the seamstress. When they reach the
guillotine, they discuss the afterlife, taking no notice of prisoners steadily
being executed ahead of them. They exchange a kiss before she ascends the
guillotine, and he then follows her in a tranquil mood, remembering the
resurrection passage from the Bible. Meanwhile, The Vengeance wonders
why Madame Defarge is not there to witness Evrémonde's execution.

Before he dies, Carton has a vision of the future in which many of the
revolutionaries go to the guillotine and the evil of the Revolution gives way to
goodness and true freedom. In his vision, he foresees long and happy lives
for Mr. Lorry, Doctor Alexandre Manette, and the Darnay family, all of whom
remember him lovingly. He also pictures Lucie and Darnay having a son,
whom they name after him and who will become the man Carton always
wanted to be. With this vision in mind, Carton goes to his death thinking, "It
is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better
rest that I go to than I have ever known."