Simple Microscope : ‘A microscope is an optical instrument which forms large image of a close and minute object. ‘This image subtends a large visual angle at the eye so that the object looks large. In the simplest form, a simple microscope, or ‘magnifying glass is just a thin, short-focus convex lens carrying a handle. The object to be seen is placed between the lens and its focus and the eye is placed just behind the lens. Then, the eye sees a magnified, erect and virtual image on the same side as the object. The position of the object between the lens and its focus is so adjusted that the image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision (D) from the eye. The image is then seen most distinctly. In Fig. 2 (@), AB is a small object placed between alens Land its first focus F". Its magnified virtual 7 image A'B' is formed at distance D from the f*—————— D-—__—>| lens. Since, the eye is just behind the lens, the «by distance of the image A’B' from the eye is also D. shea Magnifying Power : Let B be the angle subtended by the image A’B' at the eye (Fig. 2 (a)] and a the angle subtended by the object AB at the eye when placed directly at a distance D from the eye [Fig. 2 (b)]. ‘Then, the magnifying power of the simple microscope i given by a angle subtended by the image at the eye angle subtended by the object at the eye when placed at least distance of distinct vision a." Since, the object AB is small, the angles a and are also small. Then, from Fig. 2 (a) and (b), we may write B = tanB = AB/OA and a = tana = AB/D.But OA = w (distance of the objec from the lens), M ‘The image A’ BY is being formed at a distance D from the lens. Henee, inthe lens formula wwe shall put v= D and u = —u (with proper sign). Thus, act 1 f oP, f Pattng this value of Din a, (, we get D Ma142 f ‘We shall substitute only the numerical values of D and f. Thus, M is postive which means that an erect {mage is formed. Iti also clea, that shorter the focal length of the lens, larger is the magnifying power. Ifthe eyeis kept at distance d from the lens, then u = ~ (D ~d) and the magnifying power will be M “Thus, magnifying power is reduced, Hence, to obtain maximum magnifying power, the eye must be very close tothe lens. ‘To see with relaxed eye, the image A’ B” should be formed at infinity In this case, the object AB will be at the focus ofthe lens, that is, u=f. Then, from Eq, (i), we have M D “The magnifying glass (simple microscope) is used by watchmakers and jewellers to have magnified view of tiny components of watches and fine work on jewellery. It is also used to examine fingerprints and palm lines and by the students to read vernier scales, ete. Compound Microscope “The instrument produces magnification in two stages. It if a double tube system consists of two convergent lenses O and E placed co-xilly inthe two tube system. The lens O faces the object and ‘alld as objective lens. I is an achromatic convergent lens system of short focal length and a short spercre. The other lens E whichis fied inthe inner sliding tube, comparatively ofa larger focal length nda larger apertare, convergent innatute, known a eyepiece lens system, as during observations eye is placed close to it. The separation between objective lens sytem ‘0" and eyepiece lens system F can be changed by an arrangement, known as rack and pinion arrangement. A rng containing a pair of fine fibres a right angles to each other is placed atthe position ofthe image formed bythe objective, (or at the focus ofthe eyepiece) known as cross wire,‘Adjustment : Fist ofall, the eye-piece is moved forth or back in the tube and brought in such a position that on seeing through it the cross-wires appear distinct. Now, the object is placed just below, ‘the objective lens and the entire tube is moved by rack and pinion arrangement until the image ofthe ‘objects formed on the cross-wires and there is no parallax between the image and the cross-wites itself {In this position the image of the object would be seen distinct. EVE-PIECE ro Formation of mage: Suppose AB is small objec placed slighty away from the first fous Fy ofthe objective (0 Fig. 3) which forms area, inveted and magnified image". This image les between the optical centre Eofeye-iece and its first focusF and is serving as a vival objec forthe eyepiece, therefore, a magne, ‘irtual, erect image A” Bis formed on the same side of objet AB by the eyepiece lens. T fn the postion ‘oF BY, two dored rays (--—-—) are taken from B One ray, whichis parallel othe principal axis afer refraction passes through the second focus of eyepiece les. And the oer ray which pases through the optical centre £ ofthe eyepiece lens travels suaght. Bodh the refracted rays when produced backward meet at B". The image A” B° is generally formed at the least distance of distinc vision, although ican be formed anywhere berween this posion and infinity. The rays by which the eye see the image are clearly shown in the figure. “Magnifying Power : Cut length A’ 8" = AB from A" B” Then, angle AY EB" = o, thatis, the angle subtended by the object had it been at D 25 em for anormal human adult). Further suppose the final image A” B”subtends an angle fat the optical centre E ofthe eve piece lens. Since, eye fs very lose 12 the eye-pece, the angle P canals be taken as if it is subtended by AB" atthe eye. “The magnifying power of the compound microscope B_ tanB ye ATBIUATE _ Ata or ABATE AmB a ee ae, mg ie magitinton yee pee) nd me a magientn M a)distance of the image from objective lens___ Up wo “Gistance of the object from the objective lens ~~ uy oR Further im, Using lens formula for objective lens, we have 1 to C Meet % fo ‘Also, ma ev) ‘where, vis the distance of image A” B" of the virtual object A’ B' formed by the eye-piece lens E. [Now if the final image is formed at D, that is, if ve = D, then, > or n-(2) sav) Now, magnifying power M canbe obtained by wing Es (i) and 0) in B.D, that is or w=-¥(2) ted elie ‘hd the magnifying power i Eas. (iD and (i used in Eg (Di (2 u-A7(2) a) ‘Adjustments of a Compound Microscope : It should be noted that in the adjustment ofa compound ‘microscope the position of eye-piece lens is adjusted always, indifferent settings. Following are the two settings of a compound microscope. ‘@) Adjustment for Clear Vision (Normal Use) : In this adjustment the eye-piece lens is moved back and forth in such a way that the final image is formed at D. For this configuration we should substicure 1 po eb and f= fines toma, 2-2 Be ia A Dyk iene or etd i ‘Now, from Eqs. (vi) and (vil) magnifying power of compound microscope, m= -%2|i ) Length of microscope tube, L= t+ tel (i) Adjustment for Relaxed Eye (Optional) : In this configuration final image of an object is formed in relaxed eye position that is at co. In this setup eye-piece lens system is moved back until image A’ of object AB, formed by the objective lens coincides with focus F' of eye- piece lens system (Fig. 4). Mathematically this situation arives when, Ug = f.. Now, magnifying power in this position, D matte, : te 0.8) ‘Length of Compound Microscope in Different Set up : For Clear Vision : Length of microscope = Distance between the optical centres of objective and eye piece lenses. ie, L =u + u| For the Adjustment in Relaxed Eye Position : Length of microscope tube, Lam th Conditions for Large Magnifying Power : An inspection of Eo (x) signifies that object distance uy should be greater than f, (when, uy ~ f, > 0 then only real image of object AB can be obtained), but the difference ‘ug ~f should be as small as possible, thats, the object should be placed as close to the focus as possible along with the condition (u, > f,). Secondly, the focal length of eye-piece lens system should be small but slightly greater than the focal length of objective lens to get the significant magnification. Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Typ ‘An astronomical telescope is an optical instrument used to see heavenly objects like stars, planets, et. ‘The image of such a distant object formed by the telescope subtends a large visual angle at the eye, 50 that the object appears quite large to the eye. Construction : It consists ofa long cylindrical metallic tube carrying at one end an achromatic convex lens of large focal lengh and large aperture which is called the ‘objective lens’. At the other end of the tube is fited a smaller tube which can be moved in and out in the bigger tube by a rack and pinion arrangement, At the other end ofthe smaller tube is ited an achromatic convex lens of smalljocal length and small aperture which is called the ‘eye-piece’. Cross-wires are mounted in the smaller tube at the focus ofthe eye-piece. Adjustment : Firs of all, the eye-piece is moved backward and forward in the smaller tube and focussed ‘on the cross-wires. Then, the objecive-lens is directed towards the object which isto be observed. Now, by rack and pinion arrangement, the smaller tube is moved in the larger tube until the distance of the ‘objective lens from the cros-wires isso adjusted that there is no parallax between the image of theabject and the cross-wies, inthis positon a distinct image of the object will be seen. This image is formed by refraction of ligt through the lenses Hence, tis tleseope i ealledaefracting’ teescoPe Formation of image : In Fig. 5 are shown the objective-lens 0 and the eye- coleerwe Piece E of a telescope. AB is a disaant bbject whose end’ ison the axis ofthe telescope. The lens O forms a small, real and inverted image A'F at its second focus F, . This image lies inside the first focus Fy ofthe eyepiece E and acts a8 an abject forthe eye-piece which forms fa vrwal, erect (with respect to A") fand magnified final image 4” D". To find the postion of, two dated rays (--=---~-) are taken from B', One ray, (Fig. 5) Which passes through the optical centre F, goes straight and the second ray which is taken parallel to the principal axis goes, after refraction, through the second focus F, of E. The two refracted rays when produced bacivard moet at. “Magnifying Power: The magnifying power (angular magnification) of a telescope is defined by angle subtended by the final image atthe eye(S) agie subtended by the object atthe eye when the object iin its actual position (@) Since, eye is near the eyepiece E the angle subtended by the final A” image atthe eye-piece may be taken asthe angle subtended atthe eye. In the same way, since the object AB is very far from the telescope, the angle subtended bythe objec atthe objective may be taken asthe angle subtended a the eye. Then, wet Since, angles and « are very small, we may write, using Fig. S p= tanp-42 (from Fig. 5) and @ A'BYEA’_ OA AB/0N EX If the focal length of the objective O be J, and the distance of A’ from the eye-piece E be u,, then with proper sign, OA’ = +f, and EA’ = —Ug. Thus, by the above equation, we have M =~: O M “This is the general formula of magnifying power. Now, there are two possibilities: () The Final Image is Formed at the Least Distance D of Distinct Vision (Optional) : Ifthe distance 1 + for 1 ofthe final image A B fom the eyepiece be D, then in applying the lens formula > — = = ce, we shall have meee vy =-D, u=-u, and f= +f, ‘where f, is the focal length ofthe eye-piece. We get, deeds DE a uySubstituting this value of 1/, in Bq, (, we have Ho-8) 0 ‘We shall substitute only the numerical values of J, f, and Din tis formula. In this poston the length ofthe telescope willbe f, + ue. (The Final image is Formed at Infinity : To see with relaxed eye, the final image should be formed at infinity (Fig. ©. 9, For this, the distance between and the objective and the eyepiece is adjusted so that the image A'B formed by the» | ‘objective 0 is at the focus F’ ofthe eye- piece (u = f). This adjustment of the telescope is called ‘normal adjustment. Substituting uf, in Ea (9, we get Mu Se In this position the length of the telescope woe willbe fy + fe Icislearfromqs. (i) and (i) that inorder to increase the magnifying power ofa telesco x increase the mi ower of atelescope the focal length f ofthe objective ens should be large and the focal length, oftheeyeplece shen Dacca Negative sign indicates thatthe final image is inverted. Further, a comparison of Es. (i) and (ii) shows that the magnifying power ofa telescope is a telescope is greater, phen the final image i formed atthe least lance of der va han wee he ea formed at infinity. GI Reflecting Telescope ‘To obtain a‘bright image ofa distant object by means ofa refracting telescope it is essential thatthe objective i of large aperture so that it may collect enough light coming from the object. But objectives of very large aperture are difficult to manufacture and are very costly. The same can. be achieved by using a concave mirror of large aperre instead ofa lens. Construction : Ina reflecting telescope, the objective {sa concave mirror M, (Fig. 7) of large focal length and large aperture which i ited at one end of a wide tube. The open end of the tube is directed towards the distant object to be seen. The tube carries a plane ‘mirror Mg which is placed between the concave mirror ‘My and its focus and is inclined at an angle of 45° to the principal axis of Mj. A small side-tube carries a convex lens £ of small focal length and small aperture. Eis called the eye-piece Formation of image : The (parallel rays from a distant abject AB fall on the concave mirror My. The reflected convergent beam is received by the plane mirror Mzwhich reflects this beam to form a small, real image A’B' is the focal plane of the eye-piece E. The image VB! acts as object for the eye-piece E, which forms a magnified virtual image at infinity. Magnifying Power : Magnifying power of the telescope is ar = angle subtended by the final image at the eye (B) ‘angle subtended by the object at the eye (a) where Peso cee M=-—5, fe But AB’ =A’ Me ~& where f, and f, are the focal lengths of the concave mirror My and the eye-piece E . ‘The moder reflecting telescopes carry paraboloidal mirror which is free from spherical aberration. One of the largest reflecting telescopes of the world is kept at Mount Palomar in California. The aperture of its objective mirror is 200 inch (=5 metre). It is used to study distant stars and planets. Advantages of Reflecting Telescope Over Refracting Telescope : (@) The image formed by a reflecting telescope is brighter than that formed by a refracting telescope of equivalent size because in the latter the intensity of light is partially lost due to reflection and absorption by the objective lens glass. (i) Further, in reflecting telescope the image is free from chromatic aberration, because only reflection is involved, while this defect persists in the image formed by a refracting telescope. (iii) With the use of paraboloidal mirror the image may also be made free from spherical aberration. (iv) The objective of the telescope should have a large aperture. It is difficult to construct lenses of large aperture because the glass becomes distorted during the manufacturing process. The image formed by such a lens becomes distorted, On the other hand, the image produced by a mirror is not affected by any distortion in the interior of the glass. (v) High resolution is achieved by using a mirror of large aperture which is easier to support than a lens of equal aperture.