POPULATION/SETTLEMENT AND CAMEROON GEOGRAPHY

Population geography is a branch of human geography. It can be define as the science

that deals with the distribution, composition, migration and growth of population through space
and time. The population geographer depends on the demography for adequate statistical data.
The demographer is a specialist in demography.
SOURCES OF DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
Sources of population data are grouped into two categories which are the static and
dynamic sources. The static sources (census, sample surveys, population commissions and
enquiries) are used in ascertaining population distribution and structure while the dynamic
sources (vital registration, migration records, changes in population structure, records of change
in occupation employment measures aspect of population change and movement.
N.B: Four sources of data collection in the likes of census, sample survey, vital registration
and migration records are wildly recognized and used by population geography.
i) Population census: Population census is the total process of collecting, compiling and
publishing demographic data pertaining to all persons in a defined territory at a particular time.
The aim of census varies from nation to nation but a good census determine the following
information
 The total population
 Age, sex composition and marital status.
 Educational qualification and literacy level
 Economic characteristic
 Occupational distribution
 Household or family structure
 Nationality and Fertility
 Urban or rural residence or housing structure
 The population/resource level of combination
The counting done during population census is carried out by specially trained people called
enumerators. The two approaches involved in the counting of population are de facto approach
and the “De jure” approach. The de facto approach involves the counting and recording of
each individual at the place he or she is found at the time of the census. There is the risk of
double counting in this method because of population mobility. The “De jure” approach involves
the counting and recording of people according to their usual place of residence. Accidentally,
multiple residence of some people, the homelessness of the others and the mobility of people
makes theis approach less satisfactory than the De factor approach.
Advantages of population census
  It makes it possible for the total population of a country to be known.
 It helps the government in her socio-economic development plans.
 Census created temporal employment to those involve
 It helps the government to estimated the working population of the country.
Disadvantages of population census
Even though census is one of the most reliable sources of demographic data, it has the following
short comings
A) It is very expensive or costly especially to poor countries
B) It usually disturbs economic activities
C) It is inaccurate since information can be falsified.
D) It is inadequate because not all the information can be recorded
E) There is possibility of double counting and the non-counting of some people
Ii) Sample surveys: As a result of the expensive nature of population census many nations have
tended to rely on various sampling techniques. Sampling is therefore an exercise where by a
small proportion of a population or a region is taken to represent the total population. There are
three main techniques of sampling which are random sampling, stratified sampling and
systematic sampling. In each of the method, a small proportion of the population (sample
frame) is taken, sampled and the result generalized for the total population.
N.B: A sample frame is the proportion of the population that may be taken to represent the total
population of an area.
Advantages of sample surveys
 It is very economical as costs can greatly be reduced without substantial reduction in
accuracy.
 It is less time-consuming and can allow for more rapid analysis and publication of results.
 There is a decrease in human labour inputs and this further reduces cost.
 It is very accurate when carefully designed and carried out by experts
 It adds more meaning to census data by supplementing. This is because it can be used
even within censuses in order to obtain more detailed information on some aspects or
groups.
Disadvantages of sample surveys
 The population can either be overestimated or under estimated in some regions leading to
faulty results.
 Difficulties of choosing a sample from which will provide an adequate coverage of the
phenomenon under study.
 There is bias inherent in the procedure of sampling.
 III) Vital registration: This involves the continuous, compulsory and legal recording of
vital events such as birth, deaths, marriages, divorces, annulments, separations and adoptions.
All hese indicated the nature and possible changes in a population
Sources or vital registration include
Health centers, divisional and sub divisional offices, counsels, electoral registers, migration
at frontier posts, air ports and seaports.
IV) Migration record: It provides sources of data for both internal and international
movements but their reliability is highly questionable.
Others sources of population data include: electoral registers, general quarterly responds,
repords from parishes, United Nations statistical office.
QUALITY OF POPULA TION DATA
Population data vary greatly in character and in quality. MEDCs tend to have more accurate
statistics than LEDCs.
Generally international data faces two major problems which are that of inaccuracy and
heterogeneity. Inaccuracy of data results from the following reasons.
 poor and inadequately financed methods of collections.
 Ignorant, suspicious and the resentments of censuses.
 Constant changes in population.
 Omissions of more in accessible areas and some population groups.
 False statements especially of age and occupation for fiscal and political motives
Data also vary between countries (heterogeneity or diverse character) due to the following
 The diversity of methods used..
 Frequent change in boundaries of political administrative and census units.
 Different countries used different approaches.
 Lack of proper synchronization of national censuses.
 There is a wide difference in connotation of terms as language, household, race,
nationality etc.
QUESTIONS
1) Define the term population census and examine how far it may be considered a valid and
reliable sources of population data.(20mks)
2) Examine the advantages and disadvantage of the various sampling methods
3) Discuss the various sources of population data and bring out the difficulties in obtaining them.
(20mks)
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY.
 Population distribution refers to the manner in which people are spread out across the earth
surface. A look at the population of the world reveals two extremes that is areas which are
permanently occupied by people known as the ecumen areas and the uninhabited areas known
as the non-ecumen areas. The ecumen areas of the world occupies about 60% of the total land
surface of the earth while the non- ecumen areas occuppy about 40% of the total land surface of
the earth.
Population density refers to the measure of the number of people living in a specific unit of
land expressed per square km. it is calculated using the the formula below
Total population/ total surface area
Globally, a threefold division is used in the description of the world population density pattern
i.e. densely populated areas,moderately populated areas and sparsely population areas.
Densely populated areas (over l00per [Link]). These areas include western Europe, South
East Asia, North East Asia
Moderately populated areas (25-100persons/ [Link]). These areas include the interiors of
Africa, [Link] and Past of Asia.
Sparsely populated area. Below 25persons/[Link]. They consist of areas with climatic
extremes like hot and cold deserts, as well as mountainous regions like the rockies, the Alps, and
the Appalachians.
VARIOUS WAYS OF ASSESSING OR MEASURING POPULATION DENSITY.
The population density of any country can be assessed or measured using Crude density, land
use density, occupational density and room density.
1) Crude density: It is the direct measurement of the total number of people living per unit ares.
it is calculated thus.
crude density= Total density÷ Total surface area
E.g. the population of Cameroon in the year 2010 was estimated at 19,400,000 inhabitants and a
land surface area of 475,000km2
Crude density= Total population/ total surface area= 19400,000/475,000km2

From the crude density the average density can be calculated. it is calculated using the formula
below
APD=average population density
pd= sum of population density of regions
n= number of regions e.g. calculate the average population density for the four regions below
region population density
A 20
 B 5
C 15
D 10
Advantages of crude density
 It shows the concentration of people in a specific area.
 It is a useful index for periodic comparison. That is comparing change in population
density at different period in time
 It helps to compare population density between areas.
Disadvantages or shortcomings of Crude density
Despite the advantages of crude density the disadvantage ate also numerous as seen below.

A) It does not give any indication of living standard.

B) It is very misleading since it shows that population distribution is even.
C) It does not consider the resources available in an area or characteristic of the population,
it is therefore a poor indicator of population /resource relationships as under
population/optimum population and over population.
D) It make no differences between the population distribution of rural and urban area.
2. Man/ Landuse density: it measures nutritional density, physiological density and
comparatively density.
1) Nutritional or Agricultural Density: It is the ratio between the total number of people
engaged in agriculture in an area and the total cultivated areas and not the total land areas. it is
calculated thus
N.D= Total agricultural population/ Cultivable land
E.g. if an area has 20,000 people engaged in agriculture and total cultivated land is 5000km 2 then
the agricultural or nutritional density would be
ND=20,000/5000=4 agricultural workers per square km of cultivable land.
N.B: when the value is low, it means there are few people on the cultivable land and thus surplus
land exists on the other hand high values indicated overcrowding on cultivable land. Thus
indicating farm land shortage and hence high pressure on land
Advantages of nutritional density
i) It usually gives a better indication of living standard.
ii) It also indicate the magnitude of land shortage or availability.
iii) It determines whether intensive or extensive farming should be practiced
Disadvantages of nutritional density
A) It is difficult to determine the real size of cultivable land..
 B) It is difficult to determine the real size of the population engaged in cultivation of land.
C) In some cases, cultivable and cultivated land is not distinguished
ii) Physiological density
It is the ratio between the total population and cultivable land ares or land suitable for
agricultural purpose, it is calculated thus
P.D= Total population/ Cultivable area
N.B: A high physiological density indicates that there is population pressure on land and vice
and versa. (The advantages and disadvantages are similar to that of nutritional density)
iii) Comparative density
it is a type of physiological density which gives the ratio between total population and the land
area weighted according to its productivity it is calculated thus
C.D=Total population/Area"s Productivity
Advantages of Comparative density
a) It indicates the ability of a country to be economically self-sufficient.
Disadvantage of Comparative density
 It can mislead a country to undertake a bad policy of restricting food imports and
encouraging only food exports.
N.B: high values indicates that food imports are necessary while low values indicate that food
could be exported.
3) Room density: It is the average number of people per room in a gien urban area, it is
calculated by dividing the total population of a given urban area by either the total built-up
area,or by the gross area occupied by the dwelling lots and accidental services used.
Advantages of room density
1) It helps in the understanding of congestion in towns.
2) It reflects changes in housing conditions over space.
Disadvantages of room density
a) It is difficult to measure the actual surface area of story buildings.
b) It ignores sizes of rooms which greatly influences density. For example large rooms
reduce density while small rooms increase it.
c) It considers only habitable rooms thereby excluding bathrooms, offices warehouse etc.
d) It is only restricted to urban areas.
e) It says nothing about the concentration of people within buildings or houses
4) population/resource density
It is the ratio between the population and the potential of a given area. It however shows whether
the population is over populated, under populated or a situation.
5) Occupational density: It is the measure of a certain sector of the population over the total
land surface. it is calculated thus
O.D= Number of farmers/Total land area
That is if the intention is to find out the population of farmers.
TECHNIQUES USED TO REPRESENT AND MAP POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
OR DENSITY.
Various cartographical and graphical techniques are used to represent and map population
density amongst which are the population lapse rate, the Lorenz curve chroroctromatic maps
Charopleth maps, isoplephs, dot maps, proportional symbols divided circles, bar graphs etc.
Graphical tech Cartographical tech
Population lapse rate chorochromatic map
The Lorenz curve Choropleth maps
isopleth
dot maps
proportional symbols
divided circles

The Population Density lapse Rate

The population density lapse rate is a graphical technique used to show the rate of decline of
population density with increasing distance away from a central point of concentration which
may be an urban center or the Centre of an industrial area. The rate at which population density
declines with increasing distance from a central point is known as lapse rate. The relationship
between population density and distance from a central is inverse and the rate of decline varies
from regions to regions depending on the rate of socio-economic development.
Distance km
The above population density curve shows that as distance increases away from the central point
(o). Population density decline e.g. at 5km, density is about 43persons per km 2, and at 15km it
falls to about persons per km2
population density lapse rate varies greatly between MEDCs and LEDCSs because of their
differences in the level of socio economic development.
The lapse rate graph for MEDCs (developed countries) shows a gentle sloping curve with
population density gradually decreasing towards the periphery as seen below.
Population density lapse rate in developed country.
The population densities in developed countries drop in the cities and gradually increases
towards the peripheries because of the following reasons
a) High rate of urban problems such as pollution, noise, high crime wave in the urban areas
which encourages out movement from cities.
b) Improvement in living standards in rural areas so that urban dwellers are attracted.
c) Improvement in transport network making it easy and fast to move outward from the
cities or stay in rural areas and move to cities every day for working and back
d) The creation of employment opportunities in depressed rural areas that pull people
towards such areas away from the crowded cities
e) Inprovemnent in social facilities such as electricity, health centers, school etc. in the rural
[Link] cost of living in urban areas and lower in rural areas thereby making people to
move outward to rural areas..
f) The rural areas are calm and quiet a situation which encourages the movement of old
people to move there upon retirement.
The population density lapse rate for LEDCS (Developing countries) is steep showing that
population density is higher in the cities and very w w in rural areas.

Population density lapse rate

curve for developing country.
A greater concentration of the population is found in the urban center and decreased rapidly with
increase distance towards the periphery. The following reasons account for the high density in
urban areas and low in rural areas.
A) Rapid urbanization leading to concentration of people in cities
B) Poor transport models making it difficult for easy or faster movements
C) Greater economic development in urban areas leading to the creation of employment
opportunities in industries transport, commercial activities which attract many people
from the surrounding region.
D) Low or little technological improvement in rural areas.
E) Availability of social-public amenities like educational medical facilities, electricity, and
entertainment spots etc. which also attracts many people in towns.
F) Higher per capital income and living standards in urban areas compared with rural areas.
ii) THE LORENZ CURVE
The Lorenz curve is a graphical technique used to show inequality of spatial population
distribution and changes over time. As a technique used in measuring uneven of spatial
distribution of population, cumulative percentages of population are plotted against cumulative
percentages of the land area. the cumulative percentages of population are shown on the
horizontal axis while those of the land area are shown on the vertical axis.

The theoretical trace one represents a perfectly even distribution e.g. 20% of population live on
20% of land area, 49% of population on 40% of land area etc. This is however an unrealistic
situation as population can hardly be evenly distributed.
 Line A (concave) and B (convex) is the Lorenz curve because it illustrates unevenness or
inequality in population distribution and demonstrates the real or true situation of population
distribution. It shows that some areas are densely populated and other sparsely populated. e.g. at
F 40% of population live on 10% of the land area, at E 60% of population live on 20% of the
land area while at J, 80% of population live on 50% of the land area. The inequality can be
explained by physical, socio-economic and historical factor.
N.B: The curve can either be concave or convex. the greater the concavity or convexity of the
curve, the greater the inequality or unevenness of population distribution.
Advantages of the Lorenz curve
 It is used to show how much of the distribution and density of population in a country
approximates to the average distribution
 It can be used to compare the degree of population concentration or densities of
countries.
 It is used to increase the degree of regularity or irregularity of distribution of phenomena
in space and time.
Disadvantages of the Lorenz curve
 It is used only where an area can be divided into equivalent units.
 The available population data is hardly accurate for the period of time
 Data on income, political power, output are only estimates.
iii) Chorochromatic maps
This is a cartographic technique used to map differences on population distribution be simple
shading or coloring. Various shades or Colours depict different concentrative in an area densities
are always grouped into classes.
Advantages of Chorochromatic maps.
 They are easy to draw if the density classes are well defined.
 It is easy to compare difference in densities between various regions within the same
country.
 Shading over vast areas may hide variation in densities.
 Poorly designed classes of densities or shades may bring confusion and make
interpretation difficult.
iv) Choropleth maps: It is a cartographic technique used to show the intensity of population by
means of shading or colouring. The intensity of the colours varies according to the density of
population per km square.
Population distribution in Cameroon
Advantages
i) They are easy to construct once the classes have been well set.
ii) They are easy to read or interpret since spatial densities are visually compared.
iii) Virtually clear to determine densely populated areas and sparsely populated area.
Disadvantages
- It is difficult to determine the scale for Choropleth maps.
- They show wrongly that there are sharp boundaries between areas of different densities.
- They give wrong impression that within areas with the same shading, the population is
evenly distributed without variation.
v) Isopleth Maps: It is a cartographic technique used to depict population distribution or density
and characteristics on a continental or global scale or within a particular country. When densities
are calculated, Isopleth can therefore be drawn to join places of the same population density as
seen below
Advantages of isopleth maps
 Values can be obtained for any point on the map.
 Isolines can be combined with other data.
 The interval between each isoline suggests gradual, not abrupt change.
Disadvantages.
 Interpolation of value points is subjective.
 A lot of work is required where there is a large number of data points
Vi) Dot Maps: It is a cartographic technique used to show the density and distribution of people.
In this method, dots are placed at appropriate location on the map and each dot represents a given
number of people.
Advantages
 It shows the concentration of population.
 It is easy to construct and enables population numbers to be precisely located in space.
 It can easily be interpreted quantitatively.
Disadvantage
1. It is misleading because it suggest wrongly that areas without dots are totally uninhabited.
2. It is difficult to choose the scale.
3. It is difficult to decide where to locate the dots.
Questions
(1a) Discuss the various techniques used in mapping population density and distribution (10mks)
(b)Examine the advantages and disadvantages of these techniques.
(2a)Differentiate between population density and population distribution
(b)Discuss the effectiveness of using population density for measuring and bring out the various
ways of assessing it.
FACTORS AFFECTING OR INFLUENCING POPULATION DISTRIBUTOR
Population distribution is influenced by a series of physical or geographical factors and human or
non-geographical factors. The deterministic holds that physical factors are the only controlling
factors of population distribution. The role of physical factors in spatial distribution of
population declines in importance as civilization advances in complexity
According to the possibilism school of thought man therefore has the ability to modify the
parameters of the harsh environment so as to settle and carry out various activities.
PHYSICAL OR GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS
The physical factors such as climate, relief, soil, vegetation drainage, mineral and energy
resource appears to be the most significant factors influencing population distribution because
human beings choose advantageous physical condition and avoid disadvantageous ones
(probalilism)
i) The influence of climate on population distribution: Climate plays a dominant role in the
spatial distribution of population amongst other factors through its elements such as temperature,
rainfall, sunshine and atmospheric humility. The effects of climate on words population
distribution is directly and indirectly. It acts directly on human beings and indirectly through its
effects on soils, vegetation and agriculture.
Areas with conducive climate conditions such as reliable rainfall and no temperature
extremes and lengthy growing season (S E Asia, NW Europe) favours human habitation while
areas with climate extremes of too cold, too hot, wet or hot and dry, repel human habitation.
Area of the world with climatic extremes are the cold climate, the hot dry regions and the hot-
wet climatic regions.
The cold climates of the world such as the tundra (Denmark, Norway, Finland, Sweden,
Greenland, Alaska, Northern Canada, Iceland, Polar Siberia, Northern Russia and the Antarctic
Region) are characterized by permanently frozen environment which makes fishing, hunting and
farming very difficult thereby bringing about low population density.
Despite the harsh climatic conditions of the cold climatic regions of the world, people still
live there. Two groups of peoples known as the Inuits and the Laplanders have develop
adaptations such as the special clothing and the building of special dwellings so as to protect
themselves from cold. Scientists, miners also live in these areas temporary but most of their
needs are derived from outside these regions.
The hot, dry regions of the world such as the Sahara desert, Arabian Desert, Numib desert
etc are sparsely populated. These areas have very high temperatures, low rainfall which is very
unreliable resulting to the lack of vegetation, thereby limiting human population and number.
However people still survive and live in the deserts by raising animals such as camels and
constructing irrigation schemes (Gezira scheme in sudden), creation of bore holes and wells to
provide water. The presence of minerals resources has also attracted people to desert areas.
 The hot-wet climate regions of the world (tropical regions) are attractive to population
concentrating because of their favorable climatic conditions but some areas (amazon and Congo
basin) offer extremely adverse conditions which repel population concentration. The presence of
the dense forest, pest, bacteria causes a lot of accessibility and health problems. Heavy rainfall
leads to soil erosion and intense leaching rendering the ferralitic soils infertile and not good for
agriculture.
However man with technology has been able to modify these adverse conditions to permit
human habitation. This has been through deforestation, use of pesticides, land
reclamation/drainage use of artificial fertilizers to improve on the soil fertility and building of
houses which are adapted to the adverse conditions.
Conclusively, areas with conducive and moderate climatic conditions favours human
habitation and are densely populated while ares with adverse climatic conditions repel population
concentration despite the so many opportunities attracting people to cold and dry lands of the
world and the many technological advances, these areas will continue to remain areas of low
population density.
The influence of relief on population distribution: Population numbers and densities decrease
with increase attitude (height) rugged mountains with steep slopes are either uninhabited or
sparsely populated while lowland regions are densely populated. The mountainous regions are
sparsely populated because they are characterized with negative environmental conditions such
as
1. Very cold weather conditions since temperature decrease drastically with increases
height.
2. Skeletal and poor soils due to much erosion.
3. Steep rugged slope which makes agricultural activities and settlement difficult .
4. Strong winds which restrict the cultivation of variety of crops.
5. Frequent environmental hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and landslides
which repel population concentration..
6. Mountainous areas renders breathing difficult since there is drastic reduction in
atmospheric pressure and oxygen.
7. The inaccessinble nature of the mountainous areas limits industrial development because
of the difficulties in erecting buildings. It is however true that most of these disavantages
could be overcome by technical invention and man’s ingenuity but they remain
unconducive for human settlement .
The influence of mountains on population distribution varies according to latitude. This is why
there is a popular assertion that the influence of mountainous regions on population density
depends on their latitudinal situation" .High attitude areas in low latitudes such as the Ethiopian
highlands, mountains of Latin America, Central America, and regions around mountain
Cameroon and the Mandara Mountain in Cameroon are densely populated. These areas are
densely populated because of the following.
  Conducive climate conditions such as moderate temperatures and rainfall.
 Fertile volcanic soils which supports agricultural activities e.g. the western highlands and
the slopes of mountain Cameroon, Addis Ababa.
 Availability of precious minerals such as gold, manganese, copper cobalt eg the high
lands of Bolivia Peru.
In contrast high altitudes in the middle and high latitudes are disadvantages to population
concentration. This is because of negative environmental conditions such as very cold weather
conditions, infertile soils, steep slopes and low value of economic values.
However there are exceptions to the general rule that latitudes are densely populated. The
Congo Basin, the Amazon basin, the Siberia, the lake Eyre basin and some extensive temperate
grasslands are sparsely populated because of the presence of dense forest , heavy rainfall,
presence of pest and diseases.
It should however be noted that technological development have rendered such areas habitable
either through deforestation, irrigation, redamation and insecticides.
The influence of soil on population distribution: The areas of the world with fertile soils are
often densely populated because they support agricultural activities that employ about 70%of the
population. The fertile alluvial soils of the Deltas of Monsoonal and south east Asia such as the
Ganges, Mekong, Hwang Ho and the Nile valley, the Chernozems of the Steppe, prairies, the
rich volcanic soils of the Ethiopian highlands which support agricultural activities attract
population concentration.
Not all areas with fertile soils are densely populated. The Charnozem soils of the temperate
grassland areas prairies of Canada, and North America,( Pampas of south America, Dawns of
Australia and the Canterbury plains of Newzeland) with extremes of climate and extensive
farming system have low densities.
Areas of the world with fertile soils such as the heavily leached Podzol of the cold
continental temperate land and the ferrallitic soil of the humid tropics are sparsely populated.
However, in many areas with fertile soils, the soil quality has been improved through the
use of chemical fertilizers, soil improvement schemes such as irrigation and land drainage
reclamation.
The influence of drainage on population distribution: Water attracts and repels population
concentration in many areas. Many rivers or lakes attracts population because of their usefulness
as sources of water for domestic use,HEP generation, fishing, fuels, alluvial, gold, diamond, sand
and as a mode of transportation especially when navigable e.g. the Nile in Egypt supplies water
for both irrigation and domestic use, the great lakes of N E America provides water for industrial
and a means of transportation
On the other hand, rivers and lakes can also repel population concentration. This is because
their courses may be infested with pest and diseases vector such as mosquitos which causes
malaria, too liable to flooding or too deeply incised as to form gorges or ravines.
 The influence of biotic factor on population distribution: Population distribution responds to
varying distribution of plants and animals. The different vegetation types like the selva, savanna
Taiga and steps offer human occupation and concentration.
The tropical and temperate grassland areas (Savannah, Praries, Steppes)offers better
conditions such as fertile soils, precious minerals, accessibility which attracts human population.
On the other hand the dense forest regions such as the northern forest lands (northern Canada
and northern Eurasia), the tropical rainforest areas (amazon and Congo basins) and the
coniferous forest of the temperate regions are all sparsely populated. This is because of
inaccessibility, presence of wild animals, parasites, bacteria and viruses which make human
habitation difficult and unconvincing
However because of man’s technological advancement, some of the forest areas have
been cut down for agriculture, medicines, house designs and other methods of fighting against
parasites and diseases found. This has given rise to settlements in some of this harsh area.
The influence of mineral and energy resource: The availability of mineral and energy
resources such as iron are diamond bauxite petroleum and coal influences large scale
industrialization and economic growth or development. For example energy resources such as
coal in the Rhur westphalia in Germany, Pittstburgh and the great lakes of USA are today very
important because it altracted huge population for job opportunities and a market for
manufactured goods.
However the concentration of industries along major sources of minerals such as coal has
declined today due to improvement in alternative energy resources such as hydro-electric power,
natural gas and petroleum which are easily transported and transmitted due to improvement in
technology and transport ntworks.
N B: Climate is however the most important physical factor influencing population distrinbution.
This is because its influence is felt indirectly on soil drainage and biotic factors.
HUMAN FACTORS
Apart from the physical factors, many human factors such as economic activities, historical
factors, social factors and government influence have also contributed to the nature of world
population distribution.
The influence of economic activities: Generally, areas with advanced economic activities
(agriculture, industry, trade and transport) are densely populated while areas of backward
economic activities are sparsely populated.
Agriculture can either attract or repel population agglomeration depending on the type
and technique used.
Intensive subsistence and intensive commercial farming are carried out in dense populated
areas e.g. intensive subsistence along the Nile valley, Ganges valley, western highlands of
Cameroon, and areas such as Holland, Denmark, Britain and Belgium practicing intensive
commercial farming are also densely populated. Extensive commercial farming (plantations also
attract population for employment.
 On the other hand, remote areas with less developed subsistence economies and crude
agricultural techniques are characterized by sparse population densities since yield per acre in
such areas remain low e.g. central Africa, west Africa, Brazil, Zaire and amazon basin where
shifting cultivation is widely practiced livestock areas such as Sudano-suheliam countries and
arid regions of west Africa, hence low population densities
Highly industrialized regions of the world such as Rhur (Germany) Lancashire (Britain) rand
(Cameroon) offers a lot of Employment opportunities, which attract people while area with low
industrial development are sparsely populated.
However, over industrialization tends to repel population concentration because of
problems resulting from it such as pollution, traffic congestion, high orime, wave and poor waste
dispersal.
Commercial activities equally cause population agglomeration. Generally, commercial
activities are partly responsible for the rapid Urbanisation in the developed and developing
countries e.g. the high population densities in regions such as abidyen, Cairo, Douala is as a
result of their intense commercial activities
Areas with good transport network water and air are densely populated. The creation of
important ports in the coastline of most countries, the construction of canals, railways, road, and
airports have altracted large settlement in areas such as North East America, South East Asia
Douala in Cameroon.
On the other hand, poor or limited transport facilities repel population concentration. This is
the case of the mountainous regions, cold and hot deserts and dense forested areas of the world.
The influence of historical factors: Generally speaking regions of ancient civilization are
regions of high population densities. This implies that regions of the world that have old
civilization tend to have high concentration of people. This is however because of the early
human history (population inertia) that has attracted many more people over the years, sustained
births over the area, advanced technology in some cases and fertile soils. E.g. the Nile valley in
N. Africa over river Nile in Egypt, India and china in Asia with ancient civilization.
Other areas are the north Western Europe with Nordic civilization, the far north of Cameroon on
the Diamare plains that once lived the sao and kanem-Borno civilizations and the mandara Mt
area with the wandalas.
Conversely, a concluding statement that all regions of ancient civilization are regions of high
population densities is wrong because there are some past prosperous regions of the world which
had high densities and are today sparsely populated e.g. the cartage empire of Tunisia in North
Africa destroyed during the Punic wars by the Romans, Mesopotamia (present day Iraq) Persia
(iron) sparsely populated due to persistent invasions, the middle east with the Palestinian
civilization which is today sparsely populated due to the long standing conflict between Israel
and Palestine.
 On the other hand, relatively recent settlement tends to have low population densities e.g.
the new world (Australia, new-Zealand, Latin America etc.)are sparsely populated because of the
harsh climate and poor soils. Some areas of the new world are however densely populated
because of good climate and soils
Past events such as invasions/intertribal wars, past migrations has also been responsible for the
present population distribution. People escapes into the mandara mt, the western part of the
southern term highlands because of intertribal wars and invasion. Migration into some areas such
as the North America, china, Western Europe has also contributed to the density nature of the
area.
Conversely, slave trada past invasions such as slave raiding, and migration out of certain
unfavorable regions have also contributed to repel population concentration
The influence of social factors on population distribution: Areas which are large prone with
natural or manmade disasters, holy wars and which are blessed with social amenities are densely
populated.
On the other hand, areas affected by disaster, frequent holy wars and inadequate social
amenities are sparsely populated.
The influence of government on population distribution: Government policy influences the
distributional pattern of population. It has contributed to the settlement and re-settlement of
population in certain parts of the world. This is evident through the creation of facilities and
economic structures especially in depressed areas so as to enable population over spill to
resettle.
Conclusively, no one factor can fully justify the dense or sparse nature of an area. The present
day distribution pattern of the world’s population is influenced by a combination of factors.
Questions
1a) what do you understand by the term population density and population distribution (8mks)
b) How far is global population distribution determined by climate (12mks)
2) Regions of climatic extremes are areas of low population densities. Critically examine the
truth of this statement.
3) Critically examine the role played by climate in the spatial distribution of population (20mks)
4) Critically examine the view that altitude has an increase relationship with population
concentration
5) The influence of mountainous regions on population density depends on their latitudinal
situation. (20mks)
6) Regions of ancient civilization are usually of high population densities. Critically examine the
validity of this statement.
POPULATION STRUCTURE /COMPOSITION
It is the study of those aspects of population which may be measured such as age, sex, marital
status, economic composition, size and composition of families and households, nationality,
language, religion and ethnic composition. These data are usually obtained either from censuses
or vital registration. Sex, age and race are acquired from birth while marriage, family and
occupation are acquired during life.
NB: There are no standard list of such aspects for they vary with country and time.
These characteristics of the population can be differentiated in to two which are the
demographic characteristics (sex Age, structure) and the socio-economic and political
characteristics.
i)Demographic composition: The demographic composition examines the age, sex composition
of a population.
Age composition or Structure
This refers to the proportion of people contained within the various age groups. It however
varies from one country to another and also within countries. The age structures are influenced
directly by mortality, fertility, and migration.
Importance of age structures.
The study of the age structure of a country is important in the following domains
 lt helps in social planning. The age structure helps to determine the type of social
facilities to be provided to the population such as medical, educational facilities e.g. a
youthful population encourage the government to establish more educational facilities
while an aging population will encourage the establishment of more medical facilities.
 It also helps in the economic planning of the country. The age structure helps the
government to know her labour requirements, nature of job creation and location of
industries. E.g. if the population is dominated by the young, industries producing
products for this group will be encouraged.
 The age structure also helps in military planning. It is helpful in determining which
age group should be recruited into the army.
 More so, it helps in demographic planning. It helps the government opt know whether
to encourage fertility or discourage it immigration or migration etc.
 In addition to the above importance, the age structure helps for political planning. The
voting age can be determined looking at the age distribution
PRESENTATION OF AGE STRUCTURE DATA
The age structure of a population can be presented in the form of age groups, triangular groups,
age indices, pyramids, divided circles and divergence groups
Age groups and their characteristics
 Generally, the population of a country is often divided into three major age groups which are
the young, the adults and the old or aged.
Infants and the Adolescents ( the young)
This age group is made up of those who fall between [Link] some countries, it is between
[Link] may be subdivided in two. Infants from 0-12years and adolescents from 13-19 or
13-15years. This age group is known as the dependent age group and it is economically non-
productive and biologically non-productive or only marginally [Link] age group
reduces in MEDCS because of birth control measures and increase in LEDCS due to inadequate
birth control measures.
The Adults: This concerns all those who fall between 20-64years. in some countries it is
between 16-59years,15-64,or19 -[Link] is subdivided in to young, adult who fall between 20-
34 years and the older between 34-64years. This age group is known as the independent age
group and it is economically productive and biologically reproductive. It is most often refer to as
the active or working age group.
The aged:This age group is made up of people from 65 years and above. In this age group,
females constitute the majority (widows). It is also known as the dependent age group and it is
economically nonproductive and biologically non reproductive though the old men who make a
minority may be reproductive and usually more productive. It reduces in LEDCS because of low
life expectancy, poor medical facilities and is high in MEDCS.
The proportions in the various age groups vary from country to country and it is this
distributional variation that brings about a distinction between countries of a youthful or
expanding population and those of an ageing or declining population.
i)Youthful or expanding population: A youthful population is a population with an increasing
or large number of youths and a decreasing number of the aged. It is very common in LEDCS
and it is characterized by high birth rate, declining death rate and high fertility.
Causes of a youthful population
1) Little or no family planning. There is an increase in the number of young people in
LEDCS because of little or no use of contraceptives and poor child spacing.
2) More so, low level of women emancipation also causes youthful population. women in
LEDCs depend much on their husbands and must often have little or no saying
concerning the number of children that their family should have.
3) Another cause of youth population is high rate of polygamous marriage in addition to
early marriages usually bring about many children.
4) Also, state incentives through family allowances causes high remembers of children state
incentives through family allowance encourages child birth in most LEDCs resulting to
an expanding population
 5) Lastly, low life expectancy at birth and high infant mortality rate. In LEDCs, there is low
life expectancy at birth and high infant mortality rate. A situation which only help to
encourage people in LEDCs to give birth to many children in order to guarantee the
existence of the family.
Note: The excess in the number of young adults especially males) within a given population is
known as youth bulge
Consequences of youthfull or expanding population
 High rate of unemployment. This is because the rate of population growth is not
accompanied by economic development. Thus the number of people is more than the
available job opportunies.
 High dependency ratio. this is because the number of people depending on the active or
working population is very high
 Large burden on social services. An expanding population result to overcrowding on
social facilities such as schools, hospitals, entertainment etc.
 High government expenditure. An expanding population can result to high government
expenditure on the provision of services needed by the young especially educational and
health services.
 High rate of Urbanisation. The large proportion may increase the already rapid process of
Urbanisation. This is because the unemployed youths in the rural areas will move to
urban areas.
 Low per capital income. an expanding population will result to a low per capital income
leading to low standards of living
Measures to reduce the negative effects of a youthfull or expanding population
 The introduction of birth control measures so as to stabilize population numbers. This has
been very effective in china, India, Pakistan etc.
 Improvement and extension of cultivable land through irrigation deforestation,
reclamation and flood control etc.
 Intensification of agriculture with the use of farm inputs
 Creation of industries to provide employment to youth.
 Encourage out migration or emigration.
 Creation of rural settlement and development schemes.
 Creation of more schools and hospitals.
ii) Ageing or Greying population
An ageing or greying population is that population in which there is an increasing number
of aged and a decreasing number of the young or simply a population with a large population of
aged persons and a smaller proportion of young [Link] increasing proportion of the aged is
termed ageing at the apex while the decreasing proportion of the young is termed ageing at the
base. It is common in MEDCS of Western Europe, USA, Australia, New Zealand, etc.
Causes of an ageing or greying population.
 Strict implementation of birth control measures resulting in the effective reduction of the
number of children.
 High literacy level, thus awareness of birth control methods and the dangers of over
population.
 The desire to maintain high standards of living thus few children.
 Improvement in medical facilities and improved sanitary conditions prolonging life
leading to greying population.
 Better catering facilities especially in old homes created by government leading to high
life expectancy.
Consequences of an ageing population.
A rapidly ageing population produces demographic, social and economic consequences which
may be positive or negative.
Positive consequences
 Rise in life expectances given the many old people. This is mainly because of the
improvement in medical facilities.
 Greater migration from urban areas to retirement villages.
 Increase in retirement age since there is shortage in the number of young people to take
over the various jobs. People who were therefore supposed to be retired continue
working.
 A drop in mortality and fertility keeps population low. Thus, the slow rate of population
growth is advantageous because it avoids all the defects of youthful population.
 Greater technological development in the production of industries and agricultural
products.
 Increase in the demand for goods needed by old people such a walking sticks, hats,
pipes, wheel chairs and as such industries producing these goods will face a boom.
 Low labour mobility resulting to stability in economic life.
 Retirement villages become great poles since there will be the development of industries
producing products for the aged, small trading center, other socio- economic facilities in
these rural areas.
Negative consequences.
 An increase in the proportion of the aged people in the population increases the mortality
rate. The older a person is, the greater likelihood of the person dying.
 Very small growth rate or natural increase mainly because of the low fertility and to an
extend increase in mortality rate of the aged.
 Increase in dependency ratio. As the population age, more people have to be supported by
a diminishing number of the active population.
  A drop in the number of schools children mainly because of the drastic decrease in birth
rate (baby dust).
 Greater state spending on welfare services for the aged like old age pension, health care
free accommodation etc.
 Little or underutilization of social amenities like school, entertainment spots etc. given
the few youths.
 Shortage in labor force especially for technical and labour intensive jobs leading to
importation of foreign labour.
 Increase in pension bills given that there are many old people who are on retirement.
 Change in the consumption pattern leading to structural unemployment in some sectors of
the economy.
 Manufacturers of baby’s goods and food will face a severe slump and most may go out of
production.

Triangular Diagram
It is also known as a ternary graph. It is a graphical technique used to represent the various age
groups in the population of a country. It is constructed on a three axis of an equilateral triangle
showing three related variables (young, adults, and the aged). The three variables are expressed
in percentages and when added up must make a total of 100% showing the total population of the
country as seen below.
To determine the proportion of population in each country like country A, B, C and D, use the
arrows which could be pointing to a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. For example
A=young 30%Adults 50% Aged20%.. B=young40% Adults 20% Aged 20%,
C=young40% Adults40% aged20%
D=young 20% Adults70%Aged10%
Advantages of the Triangular or ternary graph
 It permits ready comparison between a whole series of countries, each of which the same
triangle.
 It determines the demographic characteristics of a country and this facilitates socio-
economic planning by the government.
 It allows single points to represent the relationship between three variables which are
stated as a percentage of the total.
 It is easy to read or interpret and a great number of countries can be represented in it at a
time.
Weaknesses of the triangular graph
 It does not show clearly the characteristics of population beyond age.
 It is too generalized.
 It poses problems of easy interpretation when points are too many.
Dependency ratio
It is the relationship between the dependent population and the independent population. This
dependent (young and old) population is inactive while the independent (active) population is the
adults. It is calculated as seen below.
Young+aged/Adults
The dependency ratio can be worked as a ratio or expressed as a percentage i.e. by multiplying
the formula by 100 when absolute numbers in each age group are given or left as a ratio. but
when percentages of each age group are given, it is not multiplied again.
N.B: when the result or answer of the dependency ratio is less than 1 or 100%, it means that the
active population outweighs the non-active and there would be a great reduction in the burden
(MEDCs) but when it is more than 1 or 100% it means that the non-active population outweighs
the active population and there would be a great increasese in the burden (LEDCs)
Advantages of dependency ratio
(a) It can easily be used to compare regions(LEDCs and MEDCs).
(b) It can determine the economically advanced regions and economically backward regions.
(c) It helps the government in her socio-economic planning policies.
(d) It makes it possible for the demographic characteristic of a country to be known
Disadvantages of dependency ratio
- It may be misleading because many people stay on at school even after youthful age
group and into adult age.
- Many people may still work after 64 years making the statistics questionable.
- In most LEDCS, the proportion of adults unemployed is too high and are dependent on
other adults
Exercises
1) Calculate the dependency ration of a country made up of young 56%, adults 35% and age 910
SEX STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
This refers to the number of males and females in the total population of a country or an
expression of male/female proportion in a total population. The sex ratio may be expressed in
three different ways as seen below.
 As the number of males per 100 or 1000 females or males (or female) as a percentage of
the total population.
 As the number of males or females as a percentage of the total population.
 As the proportion of males or females as a decimal of unity (where males and females are
equal).
Factors explaining different sex-composition
The disparity in ratio between the two sex is influenced by three main factors namely
Preponderance of male birth, differential mortality or the sex and migration
Excess of male births but higher pre-natal deaths
Male births usually exceed birth in most societies. The excess is even greater at birth or
conception but towards the latter ages, women tend to outnumber men. This is because the male
suffer from a higher pre-natal mortality. Infant mortality rate is higher among the males than
females in LEDCS because at infancy and early childhood, males are more exposed to and
contact diseases more than females and also the males tend to be less resistant than females, thus
their higher mortality.
Mortality differences of sexes.
Statistics show that in all the three age groups, male mortality is higher than that of female.
Mortality differences between the females and the males that bring the imbalance in the sex ratio
can be explained by a combination of biological, environmental and socio-economic reasons.
Biologically, males are generally a weaker sex. They contract more diseases, illnesses and are
less resistant to them and therefore tend to die younger. At birth, males are destined to a shorter
life span than females.
Males are involved in more risky jobs than females’ e.g. mining, fishing, lumbering,
industrial activities etc. thus accelerating the general wear and tear of the body.
Most men are involved in vices such as alcoholism, excessive tobacco consumption, drug
abuse ,etc. All this weaken their resistance and exposes them to various types of diseases like
cardiovascular attacks, diabetes, etc. thus increasing their mortality.
Males get marriage at higher ages than females and thus naturally are bind to die before the
females.
The effect of war has also been responsible for the excess of male deaths. This is because
males form the bulk of the soldiers in many countries so that in the event of war, many of them
die.
Road accidents also contribute to an increase in male mortality rate. Most fatal road
accidents reveal more male deaths because of their mobility.
The heavy social and economic responsibility of males in society adds to their mortality
rates.
Effects of Migration.
Migrations are sex selective. Males generally migrate more than females. Areas of departure
therefore tend to have a surplus of females while destination areas tend to have a surplus of
males eg immigrants countries such as the U S A, Canada, receive more males than females.
Importance of Sex Ratio
 It influences the marriage type e.g. polygamy where the imbalance is great and
monogamy where it is fully balanced.
 It influences the rate of fertility and mortality.
 It indicates the rate of resource exploitation (labour force).
  It shows the role of women in the society in areas where men dominates, women take
some risky activities as they are few.
 It shows the dominant sex where men dominate, crime wave is common and where
female dominate, prostitution is common.
AGE SEX PYRAMID OR POPULATION PYRAMIDS
The age sex structure of a population can be represented in the form of a population pyramid.
This pyramid is also known as an age sex pyramid or age sex picture diagram. A population
pyramid is a graphical representation of the age and sex structure of a population of a country or
region at a given time. The age groups are shown on the vertical scale, commonly graduated into
five or ten years interval with the youngest at the base and the number or percentage of males
and females within each group on the horizontal scale. The males are traditionally represented to
the left and the females to the right of the central axis.
The entire pyramid or graph is divided into three parts. At the base, is represented the youths in
the middle is the adults and at the top the old are represented below

Types of population Pyramids

There are four main types of age-sex pyramid or population pyramids.
I)The progressive or expansive pyramid: This population pyramid shows a progressive
structure in which both births and deaths rates are high. The children account for about 44-50%
of the total population and aged about 5-19%. This type of population pyramid is characterized
by a broad base, concave sides and narrow apex. Such a pyramid is common with most LEDCS
of Africa, Latin America and Asia. Such expansive age sex pyramid are common characteristics
of countries found in stage 1 and 2 of the Rostow model of economic growth and the
Demographic transition [Link] broad base of the progressive age sex pyramid which
signifies high birthrate is as a result of the following.
i) Early marriages.
 ii) Little knowledge of birth control measures.
iii) High mortality rate.
iv) State incentives through family allowances.
v) Religious beliefs.
vi) Children considered as future investment and mere pride.
vii) Low level of women emancipation.
viii) More children needed to provide farm labour.
On the other hand, the narrow apex of the progressive age sex pyramid signifies few old people
as a result of high death rate is as a result of the following reasons.
 Inadequate and poor medial facilities.
 poor diet
 poor living standards.
 Poor transport and communication network.
ii) Progressive or contractive Age sex pyramid: It shows a population with low birth rate and
low death rate. It is characterized by a narrow base, bulge middle with convex sides and a wider
top. The narrow base indicates low proportion of children and a wider apex shows high
percentage of elderly people as a result of a reduction in deaths rate. It is a typical example of
countries of the developed world. It is found in stage 4 and 5 of Rostow model of economic
growth and [Link] narrow base signifies few children due to low birth rate resulting from
improvement in medical facilities,late marriages, high living standards, high use of
contraceptives, high rate of women emancipation, monogamous marriages
The pyramid bulges in the middle (conversides) because of the increase in life expectancy
and immigration of adults from LEDCS to these countries in search of jobs, education and
escaping from insecurity
The top has wider apex signifying many elderly people (low deaths rates) .This is explained by
improvement in medical facilities, improvement in hygiene and sanitation, better feeding
habits, improvement in transport and communication
iii) Stationary age sex pyramid: It is a population pyramid common in most developed
countries and in large countries. It is made up of a roughly equal number of people in all age
groups characterized by a narrow based, convex sides and a wider top. The narrow base (low or
declining fertility) is due to birth control measures while the low mortality is as a result of better
medical facilities, good diet. There is therefore a relatively longer life expectancy ratio and slow
and stable or constant population growth.
iv) Intermediate or composite pyramid: It is common in countries that are undergoing some
demographic evolution or passing through stages of development. It has characteristics of
progressive and regressive pyramid. Birth rate and death rates are all low e.g. Argentina and
China, Cuba, Mexico.
Types of population pyramids
Importance of age sex pyramid
 It depicts the overall level of development that a country has reached.
 It provides information on the demographic evolution of a country and effective planning
on it.
 It helps in differentiating mortality by age and sex.
 It demonstrates sex differential in age structure.
 The length of s stratum may illustrate absolute numbers or proportion which corresponds
to the number in each age group.
 It can help a country to plan for future service needs such as old people’s homes if it has
an ageing population or fewer schools if it has a declining younger population.
 Comparism can easily be made from the pyramid on the socio-economic conditions and
demographic structure between countries
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SHAPE OF THE AGE-SEX PYRAMID
A normal age-sex pyramid is symmetrical (uniform) with similar or the same number of male
and females in each age group. In reality age-sex pyramids are hardly symmetrical but a
symmetrical (changes). The pyramids are dynamic because they changes over time. The
asymmetrical nature of the age-sex pyramids is caused by demographic and non-demographic
factors whose effect is either in the short or long run.
A)THE DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
The demographic factors affecting the age-sex pyramids are birth rate, death rate and
migration.
Birth rate: It refers to the total number of live birth per thousand of the total population in a
given area. High birth rate results to a youthful population characterized by broad base
(progressive) in the short run and subsequently an expansion of the age-sex pyramid in the long
run since the children will get old and move on into the other age bracket.
On the other hand, a fall in birth rate will result to a narrow base age pyramid in a short run.
In the long run, the entire pyramid will contract due to fall in the total population
Death rate: lt is the number of death expressed per thousand of the total population in a given
year. A high infant mortality rate result to the contraction of the base of the population pyramid
in the short run and the total contraction in the long run. High death rate which affects all the age
groups result to the contraction of the entire age-sex pyramid while low death rate as a result of
improved medical facilities etc. result to the progressive age-sex pyramid.
Migration: Migration which is the movement of people from one place to another is generally
age-sex selective and negatively or positively effects population [Link] adults males are
the most migratory. Countries experiencing high rate of immigration (MEDCs) would have a
slight bulge in its age-sex pyramid in the middle male side in the short run. In the long run it will
leads to an increase in population as a result of an increase in birth rate since the adults are
biologically reproductive (broad base population pyramid).
On the other hand, countries experiencing high rate of emigration (LEDCs) would have a
contraction in the middle males side of their population pyramid in the short run and a fall in
birth rate in the long run making the pyramid to be narrow at the base.
NON DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS.
These are the various socio-economic factors that act directly through the demographic factors.
They include war, famine, improved medical facilities, marital behavior, natural disasters
epidemics and government policies.
War: Generally, war plays a negative role on population in a short run. During war, there is the
contraction in the male side of the population pyramid because the adult males make up the bulk
of the armed forced and so they would die more than other groups.
Another short term or immediate effect of war on the age-sex pyramid is that birth rate fall
drastically leading to a situation of baby dust or demographic winter. This narrows the base of
the pyramid.
Moreso, war often triggers off massive out migration of children and the females since there are
not actively involved in the fighting resulting to the general reduction in the volume or size of
the whole pyramid.
The long term effect of war on age-sex pyramids are very pronounced at the base. At the
end of the war, there is likely to be a baby boom (a period during which the rate of births greatly
increases). This will increase the number of children in the population and leads to the
development of progressive pyramid with a broad base.
Improved medical service:This implies the availability of good medical personnel, medical
equipment, drugs, better vaccination programmes against various diseases etc. when all these are
present in a country, the immediate effect would be a drastic reduction in death rate resulting in a
progressive age-sex pyramid in LEDCs. In MEDCs the reduction in infant mortality greatly
reduces the need for a lot of children cagering at the base
in the long run such improvements in medical services will lead to higher life expectancy at birth
resulting to ageing at the apex i.e. widen of the top of population pyramid (regressive age-sex
pyramid)
Famine: Famine may either lead to an increase in the number of deaths especially when it
persists for a long time or triggers off out migration or emigration. In the long run it may result to
the death of children and the old thereby narrowing the base and apex of the population pyramid.
It may also result to out migration and the demographic long term effect will be the reduction in
birth as survival changes are reduced.
On the other hand in the long run, when the famine has been eradicate as a result of increase in
food output must of the people who migrated out would return home and there will be an
increase in birth rate resulting to a broad base pyramid
Marital behavior: In LEDCs with early and polygamous marriages and countries with high
proportion of married people, the age-sex pyramid will be progressive due to high birth rates.
On the other hand in MEDCs where monogamous and late marriages dominate as whereas
countries where the population is dominated by single population, death rate declines producing
narrow base population pyramid (regressive)
Natural disasters: Natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruption, floods. Landslides
etc. cause the death of so many people and also trigger off massive out migration. This generally
reduces population number causing a general reduction in the population pyramids both in the
short and long run. This is because natural disasters are neither age nor sex selective.
Epidemic and pandemics
Widespread diseases such as cholera, meningitis etc. as well as pandemic such as HIVS AIDS
have short as well as long term demographic effects. Cholera for example can cause the volume
of the population pyramid to decrease especially in LEDCs with poor medical facilities. Aids are
common in young adults of both sexes especially in the LEDCs. This will cause an indentation
on both sides of the population pyramid in this age group.
Government policies: Government policies such as family allowances, free education for
primary children, granting of loan marriage, restricting abortion etc. encouraged by some
countries give broad base pyramid (progressive). In countries with antinatlist policies, measures
are adopted to reduce population growth like spacing, legalizing abortion, sterilization provision
of free contraceptives etc. such measures are responsible for narrow base pyramids (regressive).
Questions
1a) Define population pyramid or age sex pyramid (7mks)
b) Compare and account for the differences in the characteristics of the age sex pyramid of
LRDCS and MEDCS (18mks)
2) Analyse the immediate and long term effects of the following on the country’s age-sex
pyramid
i) Famine ii) war iii) Improved medical services. (8+8+7)
3) Explain the factors that might cause the shape of an age- sex pyramid to be dynamic or
change overtime (25mks)
4) Demographic factors constitute the main reasons why age-sex pyramid vary in shape and size.
Discuss (25mks)
5) Explain the immediate and long term effects of the following on a country’s age-sex pyramids
i) population polices (ii) Epidemics (iii) Environnemental hazards
b) Examine the various factors that cause change in the size and shape of population pyramid
over time.
POPULATION GROWTH OR CHANGE OVER TIME.
Population change is the positive or negative trend of the population of a region, continent or the
world. Population change over time is popularly referred to as population growth which is the
increase in the number of people in an area.
Historical appraisal
The population of the world was very slow or gradual before 1650 because of epidemics, tribal
wars, famine, poor medical facilities which caused many deaths. It started increasing rapidly
from 1750 because of the influence of the economic and social change that were taking place
such as the industrial revolution, agrarian revolution, improvement in medical facilities and
batter sanitary conditions which gradually reduced the chances of dying. The population of the
world was estimated at 300million by the time of Christ. It rose to about 500million people by
1650, 791million by 1750, 1262million by 1850, 2515million by 1950, 4500million by 1980, and
6130million by the year 2000. It was estimated at 7000million by 2010 and may stand at
8300million by 2025 (UN extimates).
The concept of population change is not a static issue but dynamic varying between
the MEDCS, LEDCS and within countries. The MEDCS are generally lower in growth rates
than LEDSC. The population growth rate varies from country to country as the distribution,
structure and movement or migration policies change over time and space.
 Population change is therefore an open system with inputs through births and immigration,
natural population and net migration constitute the process and deaths, emigration as output as
seen on the diagram below

Population change as an open system

As represented above, population change system is dynamic. This means that it vary from one
place to another. The dynamism in population is caused by changes in demographic factors such
as birth, death rates, migration, population structure and marital behaviour in combination with
non-demographic factors such as wars, government policies, sex structure, political instability
and pandemics, natural disasters, economic recession or crisis.
DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
i) Fertility (birth rate): The population of a region can increase or decline depending on its
fertility rate. A country will have a positive population change or growth if the youthfull
population is made up of females than males. Birth rate will actually be high when other factors
such as population structures government policy, level of education etc. work in combination.
Ii) mortality (death rate): Generally, regions experiencing high mortality rate will obviously
experience a negative population growth because death rate affects all structures of the
population. The natural change of the population will increase or be positive if the difference
between birth rate and death rate is positive (positive population growth)
Conversely, if the different between birth rate and death rate is negative ,population change or
natural change of population declines and gives a negative growth situation. Zero population
growth will be achieved when birth rate is equal to death rate.
iii) Migration: This is the different between immigration and emigration (I-E). An excess of
immigrants lead to and increase in a country’s population giving a positive net migration e.g. the
DV lottery played every year has led to an increase in the population of America.
Conversely, an excess of emigrants over immigrants, means a negative net migration hence
a reduction of population through declining growth rate. Warlike countries such as the middle
east and epidemics affected regions, environmental hazards regions experience a negative net
migration.
iv) Demographic or population structure: This is the division of the population into its age sex
composition. Age structure is the classification of the population into the young, adults and the
old. A population made up of adults (active population) which are biologically reproductive and
economically productive will have a positive population change or natural increase because of its
high birth rate. A negative population change will be experienced if a population is made up of
the young and old (dependent) who are biologically non reproductive and economically non
reproductive.
Sex structure which is the male-female ratio of a population also affects the growth rate of
a population. a country with excess female over males will increase birth rates especially with
females of the reproductive ages, while a preponderance of males over females will reduce birth
rate and a fall in population growth rate.
NON DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
V) Political instabilities: Birth rate will reduce if a country is faced with civil wars, strikes
military take overs and antangonism. Political instability result to rapid emigration of the
youthful population and limit immigration thereby reducing population size of the country’s
concern e.g. the recent insecurity in Central African Republic, Boko Haran in northern
Cameroon and Nigeria.
vi) Epidemics and pandemic: Epidemics and pandemics such a as HIV/AIDS, cholera, measles,
Ebola virus and corona virus however reduce fertility and fecondity since the youths are the most
affected because they die at reproductive ages. This also provoke rapid outmigration and limit
immigration, hence a decrease in population growth.
vii) Availability of the medical services: Improved medical services such as the provision of
more heath unit, hospitals, clinics vaccination reduces mortality rate giving rise to a positive
population change. Many diseases can be prevented or completely eliminated when all these are
present, the population increase but when medical services are poor, death rates for example are
high and may reduce population growth rate.
viii) Natural disasters and environmental hazards: Natural disasters and environmental
hazards such as earth quakes, landslide, volcanic eruption, slope failure increase death rates,
reduces fertility and provoked out migration. Areas which are subjected to frequent hazards all
have negative population change e.g. Nsamfire disaster in Yaounde , lake Nyos disaster all
negatively affected the population of Cameroon.
ix) Government policy: The national government or the state can equally promote the growth
rate of its population depending on its aims and objectives. This varies from country to country
for example, the Cameroon government encourages birth rates by offering family allowance to
many people which goes a long way to encourage and increase birth rate, hence population
growth .
Conversely, some government may use contrary methods to control population growth and
explosion for example the “one child policy” adopted in china in the late 1970 aimed at reducing
the population.
Conclusively, non-demographic factors influenced population growth through the
demographic factors which are the key factors responsible for changes in population growth.
These factors vary over time as seen in the demographic transition models by John Clerk.
MEASURING OF POPULATION CHANGE
Natural change: It is the net change in the total population of an area arising from the balance
of births and death. If the difference between births and death is positive, we talk of natural
increase but when the difference is negative, we talk of a natural decrease.
ii) Natural increase or decrease:
Natural increase is the excess of birth over death or the growth of population brought about as
births exceed deaths. Natural decrease on the other hand, is a situation where there is a negative
difference between births and death. It is calculated using the formula NI=B-D
II) Natural increase and decrease rate: Natural increase rate is the positive difference between
the crude birth and death rates expressed per thousand of the total population while natural
decrease rate is the negative difference between the two of them also expressed per thousand of
the total population. Is calculate as seen below,
NIR= Crude Birth rate-crude death rate.
iv) Population growth rate: This measure the rate of increase or decrease of population
resulting from natural increase and net migration expressed as percentage of the total population.
It is calculated using the formula below.
Par=
B=Births, D=D deaths
I=immigration E=emigration
v) The annular of increase: It is one of the most common and comprehensive measures of
population growth because it takes into consideration both effects of natural increase and
migration.
AIR=
T=Number of years
Po= population at the beginning of the period
Pi= population at the end of the period
VI) The population equation (Balancing equation method): This is the basic method or
measure used to calculate the numerical change of population over time. It shows how three
factors interact to produce net changes over time. The demographic balancing equation allows
for the calculation of population changes from one year to the next based on numbers of births,
deaths and migration. It is calcu7lated thus
P2=pi+ (B-D) + (I-E)
Where
p2=population at a later date
p1 =population at the earlier date
B=Births
D=Deaths between two periods
I= Immigration (in-migration)
E= Emigration (Out Migration) between two period
B-D=Natural increase
I-E=Net migration
EXERCISE
The population of country A at the start of 1982 was10,000,000. Birth=500, 000, death=100,000,
immigrants=150,000 and emigrants 50,000. Calculate the population change and total population
by the end of 1982
1) Population change ((B-D) + (I-E)
= (50000-100,000) +150000-50000)
=400,000+100,000=500,000
ii) Total population at the end of 1982=10.000, 000+500,000=10.500, 000 people
iii) Numerical population change
= p2=p1+ (B-D) + (I-E)
=10,500,000-10,000,000(500,000-100,000)+(150000-50000)
=500,000+ (400,000) + (100,000)
=500,000+ (400,000+100,000)
=500,000+500,000=1000, 000 people
Doubling time
It is the number of time a given population is expected to double itself. It is calculated thus
DT=
E.g. given that the population growth rate is 2.8% per annum, and the population stands at 15
million. Calculate the doubling time of the population.
DT=
=25years
(3x2) given that in the year 2016, the population of country x was estimated at 19million and the
growth rate of 108%
1) Calculate how long it will take for the population double itself (D.T)
ii) What will be the population of country x when it doubles itself?
iii) In which year will the population double itself?
Solution
I) DT=
ii) Pop= 19,000,000x2=
38,000,000people
iii) 2016+39years=2055
EX3) given that the population of Cameroon in 2005 was 16,000,000 and with an annual growth
rate of 208% what will be the pop by 2025.
Solution
DT
2025-2005=20years
=20x44800=8,960,000
=16000, 000+8,960,000 =24,960,000
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL (DTM)
The DTM, Demographic Cycle, or population transformation model describes a sequence of
changes over a period of time in the relationship between birth rates and death rates and overall
population change. These changes occur as a nation progresses from a rural, agrarian and
illiterate state to a predominantly urban, industrial and literate one. According to Notestein and
other Geographers like A. B Mountjoy, the DTM is made up of four stages but the fifth stage is
eminent as clearly advanced by I. Clarke.
Stage in the Demographic Transition model
Stage 1: High fluctuation or Primitive stage: This stage corresponds to the first stage of
economic development model of W.W Rostow. This stage rarely exist today but Britain and
other European countries were in this stage in the 18th century. It is characterized by the
following demographic and socio- economic conditions. Demographically, This stage is
characterized by fluctuating high level of birth and death rates leading to a slow population
growth.
Birth rate is high in this stage because of early marriages, polygamous marriages, little
or no birth control or family planning, religious beliefs, low level of women emancipation,
the desire to have a large family,and state incentives through family allowances
On the other hand, death rate is also high because of poor hygienic and sanitary
conditions, inadequate and poor medical facilities, high level of contagious diseases,
inadequate clean water sources, famine and poor diet.
This stage is characterized by slow economic development. The socio economic
characteristic of this stage are high rate of illieracy, poor developed heath facilities, poorly
developed social amenities, low per capita income, low standard of living, purely
subsistence agricultural society, zero industrialization, poor transport facilities and the non
exploitation of potential resources.
Stage ii: Early expanding stage: This stage corresponds to stage two and three of the economic
growth model of W.W. Rostow. Countries at this stage are Peru, Kenya, Sudan Libya, Sri Lanka
etc. It is characterized demographically by high birth rate and declining death rate leading to
a high natural increase and rapid population growth.
Death rate falls or declines in this stage because of improved health care( Better
vaccination, hospitals, doctors, new drugs etc),improved hygiene, improved sanitation,
improved food production and storage, improved transport for food, decrease in infant
mortality rates.
NB: The reasons for high birth rate are same as in stage one.
This stage is characterized socio-economically by development in educational facilities,
improvement in health facilities, improvement in social facilities, improvement in living
standards, increase in the level of investment, improvement in transport facilities,
expansion in trade, introduction of modern methods of farming and the development of
secondary Industries
Stage iii: Late expanding stage: This stage corresponds to stage four of W.W Rostow model of
economic growth. Countries at this stage are China, Australia,Cuba, Brazil, Argentina,Spain,
Portugal etc. It is characterized demographically by a rapidly falling birth rates and slightly
falling death rates leading to a slow population growth.
Birth rate falls rapidly in this stage because of implementation of birth control
measures,lower infant mortality rate, increased Mechanization thereby reducing the need
for workers, Increased industrialization thus reducing the need for labourers, Increased
standard of living, increased government incentives for smaller families, changing status of
women and rise in the literacy level leading to a decline in traditional beliefs and customs.
NB: The reasons why death rate falls slightly are same like in stage two above.
The socio-economic characteristic of this stage are higher literacy level compared to stage
two, rise in per Capita income, improvement in medical facilities, increase in the level of
investment, expansion and contraction of industries, development of large urban regions,
expansion of trade, Mechanization of agriculture, and rise in living standards.
Stage IV: Low fluctuating or mature stage:This stage corresponds to stage five of W.W
Rostow Model of economic growth. It is made up of Demographically advanced countries such
as Canada, Germany, U.S.A, Norway [Link] stage is characterized demographically by a
slightly low fluctuating birth rates and death rates leading to a slow and steady population
growth. The low birth and death rates give rise to an ageing population.
Birth rate is low in this stage because of monogamous marriages, late marriages,
implementation of birth control measures, high literacy level, desire to have a small family,
high life expectancy which assures the survival of children to adulthood.
NB: The reasons why death rate is low are same like in stage three.
The socio-economic characteristic of this stage are high literacy level, development of
good social security system, highly developed medical facilities, development of
technological Industries, high per Capita income, high development in transport.
Stage v: Low and declining stage:This stage still falls or corresponds to stage five of Rostow
model of economic growth and is made up of countries such as Sweden, Japan and Germany.
It is characterized demographically by death rate falling slightly below death rate given a
fall in the total population. Death rate is high here because of the ageing population at the top as
a result of the many old people in the population. Other non demographic factors causing high
death rate may be famine, accidents and natural disasters.
NB: This stage has almost the same socio-econnmic characteristics as stage four.
Importance or relevance or usefulness of the DTM
The Demographic Transition model is useful in the the following ways.
The model provides a useful basis for further study of demographic changes.
It is also relevant in that it is used to show how the Population growth of a country changes
over a period of time.
Moreover, the DTM may be used to compare rates of growth between different countries at
a given point in time.
Moreso, it is useful because it assists in government socio-economic planning policies.
Furthermore, the DTM is useful because it stimulates research and debate.
Limitations or weaknesses of the DTM
Like all model, the Demographic Transition Model has its limitations. It failed to consider, to
predict, several factors or events as explained in the paragraphs below.
The Demographic Transition Model is Eurocentric. This means that it is based on the
experience of the West not the LEDCs.
Another weakness or limitation of the model is that it does not take into account migration,
which is a major component of Population change.
Moreover, the model did not take into consideration the negative effects of natural disasters
and wars on the pattern of Population change because natural disasters and wars obviously
distort the sequence of Population growth.
Furthermore, the model neglects the influence of cultural differences. Culture vary greatly
and have affected the patterns of demographic changes in LEDCs.
Another limitation is that the time scale is vague. This is because some countries such as
Hong Kong, Malaysia pass through some of the stages very quickly.
The population policies of countries are not the same and therefore their demography would
certainly not follow the same pattern as suggested by the [Link] now seems unlikely, however
that many LEDCs especially in Africa, will ever become industrialized.
In addition to the above limitations, the model assumes a fall in the death rate in stage 2 as a
result of industrialisation which has not been the case, as many LEDCs never become
industrialised.
 Birth rate in several MEDCs have fallen below death rates( Germany, Sweden). This has
caused, for the first time, a population decline which suggests that perhaps the model should
have a fifth stage added to it.
POPULATION GROWTH PROBLEMS OR THE POPULATION PROBLEMS
Population problem otherwise known as Population growth problem refers to the rate at
which the Population is increasing (exponential rate) without a corresponding increase in the
means of subsistence (resources) as postulated by Thomas Malthus. It is an imbalance situation
where population grows more than resources in general and food supply in particular thereby
generating other related social problems (hunger, poor sanitation, pollution of the land, water and
the atmosphere, overcrowding on social facilities, traffic congestion, high crime wave and the
development of slumps and shanty towns at the outskirts of large urban areas), economic
Problems (scarcity of land and capital resulting to low agricultural and industrial output, high
rate of unemployment especially in LEDCs, rise in the cost of living and inadequate transport
network) and political problems(wars, riots, demonstrations, vandalism etc)
Measures of solving the world population problems or solutions for the population
problems.
The solutions to the population problems can be provided in two domains namely providing
for growth and limiting growth.
A) Providing for growth: These are solutions aimed at providing more food, housing, social
facilities to the rapidly growing population.
i) Improvement in agriculture: This can be done through intensification and extensificayion.
Agriculture can be intensified by improving upon the existing cultivable land through
greater use of natural manure and artificial fertilizers to enrich the soil, pesticides and
insecticides to eradicate pest and diseases and herbicides to eliminate dangerous weeds.
Agriculture can also be intensified through the use of agricultural machinery like tractors,
ploughs, milking, machines, and combine harvesters.
Moreso, the existing cultivable land can be improved upon through hybridisation, cross
breeding and the discovery of new species of crops that are fast maturing and disease resistant
such as the miracle rice with three harvest periods.
Further more, agriculture can still be improved through extensificaction or the opening of
new land. More land can be reclaimed from waste, flooded or derelict land. This has been
effective in Denmark and Holland. Flooded lands in these countries have been made cultivable
through land drainage leading to increase in agricultural output.
Moreso, through irrigation and deforestation. Some desert, dry Sahel regions have been
made cultivable through irrigation. In the dense Amazon and Congo basin and other forest
regions of the world, vast areas have been deforested for the cultivation of tropical crops.
 Apart from the intensification and extensificaction of agriculture to provide food for the
growing population, other measures such as industrialization, migration, creation of more space
and measures to limit growth can be used to solve population problem
Industrial expansion will help solve population problem because Industries will serve as
employment opportunities where jobs will be created as well as the exportation of industrial
products which will provide a source of foreign exchange earnings.
Moreso, Migration should be encouraged especially in countries suffering from
overpopulation so as to reduced pressure on the existing land. This has been effective in China.
Moreover, more space can be created to accommodate the exploding population through
vertical construction of houses. Many storey buildings and skyscrapers should be constructed to
accommodate thousands of people so as to solve the social problem of housing.
Further more, birth control measures such as the use of contraceptives, family planning, late
marriages, abstinence, legalisation of abortion, sterilisation/ vasectomy, wars, diseases, flood can
be used to limit population growth.
FERTILITY AND MORTALITY
i) FERTILITY (Birth rates)
Fertility is the accurance of live birth or the level of childbearing in an individual, but often in a
society or nation. Indices of fertility are crude birth rate, fertility ratio, general fertility rate,
cohort fertility rate, total fertility rate, replacement rate and reproductive rate.
Factors influencing fertility or birth rates are population structure, level of mortality,
education religious prescription, traditions customs, diet, health, politics, race and climate
Reasons for high Fertility rate in LEDC.
1) Early marriages.
2) Polygamous marriage.
3) High level of illiteracy
4) High mortality rate
5) Inadequate birth control measures.
6) low woman emancipation
religion.
1) Government policies
2) Nature of diet etc.
Reasons for low Fertility in MEDCs.
a) late marriages
b) Monogamous marriages
c) High level of literacy
d) Sophisticated birth control measure
 e) High women emancipation
f) Ageing population
g) Desire for high living standard
B) MORTALITY (DEATH RATE)
It is the occurrence of death. Indices of mortality are crude death rate, age specific death
rates, standardized mortality rates, maternal mortality rate [Link] influencing mortality
or death rate are population structure, availability of medical facilities, social status,
occupations, level of place of residence natural disaster.
POPULATION CHANGE IN SPACE: THE CONCEPT OF MIGRATION
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another. The person involve in
the movement is called a migrant.
Terms Used In Migration
In migration: It is also called internal migration and it is the movement of people within
the country e.g. the movement of people from Bamenda into Yaounde. The person involved in
this type of movement is called an immigrant.
Out migration: It is the movement of people out of an area within the country e.g. the
movement of a person from Yaounde to Bamenda. The person involved in this movement is
called an out migrant.
Emigration: It is the departure of people from an area of origin crossing national or
political boundaries into a destination or simply the movement from one country to another and
the person involved is known as an emigrant
Immigration: It is the movement of people into a country from another country and the
person involved is known as an immigrant.
Migration Stream: It refers to a group of migrants with a common origin and
destination. Migration is a two way process. Every migration stream has a counter stream, also
known as counter-migration or reverse stream.
Gross migration or Gross interchange: It refers to the total number of inmigrants
(immigrant) and out migrants (Emmigrants). It is sometimes referred to as the turn over for a
given area.
Net migration or net migration balance: This refers to the difference between two
opposing migration streams
Step and Chain migration:” These are terms used to describe the way migration takes place.
Step migration is a type of migration systems which occurs in a series of steps or stages
or movement e.g. movement from a hamlet to a village meanwhile a chain migration is a
migration process, which depends on a small number of pioneers (innovators) who make the
first moves to set a new home in a new environment then send information at home which
encourages further migrations of a secondary group from the original area.
N.B: centrifugal forces are those that encourage movement of people, business and industry
away from central urban areas e.g. ingestion, restricted sites, high local taxed. On the other hand
centripetal forces are those which attract people business and industry towards a central and are
responsible for the growth of large urban areas e.g. accessibility, agglomeration economies,
amenities etc.
Differential migration( Migration selectivity)
This refers to the tendency for certain elements( that is some people or group of people) of the
population to be more migratory than the other. Migration is therefore highly selective in the
socio-economic characteristics of the population as seen below.
Age selectivity of migration. The population is usually divided into three main age group
namely the young, adults and the aged. The young adults are more migratory than the aged and
the young or [Link] often migrate to their first job and for education or merely for
[Link] easily adjust themselves to new environments
Sex selectivity of migration: Generally, in More Economically Developed Countries, short
distance internal migrants are mostly females while over longer distances males [Link]
Less Economically Developed Countries, on the other hand, male migration predominates both
internally and internationally. However, with improvement in technology and transport, mobility
has been increased for both sex.
Marital status: The marital status of individuals also affects the level of migration. Single
migrate more often than married couples especially in more economically developed countries
due to less inconvenience as compared to moving a whole family with children, high cost of
transport fares etc. However the tendency of marital status selectivity in migration is reduced
today because some families still move due to the search for better living conditions, such as
housing, better employment etc.
Type of occupation or profession: Migration is also affected by the type of profession or
occupation of individuals. Professionals migrate more often than non-professional while the
unemployed move more often than the employed since they move to search for jobs.
Socio-economies class: The less socialized or people of lower social status migrate more than
those of high social class. This is because the people of low social class are unstable and so move
in search of fortune.
Educational level: People with higher literacy level or more educated people have the tendency
of migrating more than illiterate or less educated people. This is because more educated have
greater awareness or many aspects of life around the world e.g. educated people move in search
for better jobs and research.
Ethnic group: Some ethnic groups are more migratory than others e.g. the Fulani’s are more
migratory than the bantus
Race and nationality. Migration is also selective in terms of race and nationality. Generally,
whites are more migratory than the blacks. This is because of their adventurous nature and the
fact that they are more educated, richer and have high level or technology than the blacks.
NOTION OF SPATIAL INTERACTION AND FACTORS
Spatial interaction refers to the movement of goods, services, people, ideas or information
between places or from one place to another over time and space through communication
network such as routes, telephones, telegraphs, internet and satalites. Items involves in spatial
interaction are either visible items such as goods and people (tangible goods) or invisible items
(intangible) such as information, messages and ideas. Interaction takes place because regions or
countries are hardly self- sufficient or autonomous.
Edward Ullman, an American Geographer in 1940s postulated three major determinants of
spatial interaction between two places namely complementarity, intervening opportunities and
transferability as explained below.
Complementarity. This simply means the degree to which two regions complement each other.
In order for two or more regions to interact, there must be a demand in one and a supply in the
other. That is the demand for a good or service at one place must be matched by the supply of
that same good or service at another. If there is the supply of a good or service at one end and no
corresponding demand at the other, smooth interaction cannot take place between the two
regions. It therefore means that the supply must be backed by the ability to pay for it. E.g.
smooth interaction may take place between the MEDCs and LEDCs with the MEDCs buying
raw materials from LEDCs in exchange for manufactured goods. It also takes place between a
town and its surrounding countryside with the countryside supplying foods stuffs in exchange for
goods such as dresses imputs etc.
Intervening opportunities. These are vacancies or opportunities that exist between the area of
departure and that of destination which can attract migrants thereby reducing the rate of
interaction e.g. people leaving Bamenda to Yaoundé may end up at makenene thereby reducing
the volume of interaction between Bamenda and Yaoundé. The higher the number of intervening
opportunities, the lower the volume of migration between regions.
A.S Stouffer in 1940 expressed the above ideas in his theory entitled “theory of
intervening opportunities” in which he stated that the volume or amount of migration or spatial
interaction over a given distance is directly proportional to the number of opportunities at the
point of destination, but inversely proportional to the number of opportunity between the points
of departure and the destination.
Transferability: Smooth interaction can only take place between two regions when the product
or service is both physically and economically mobile e.g. if a buyer at Makenene pays for a
product or service in Yaounde and the product cannot be moved from Yaounde to Makenene
then interaction has not taken place physically between Makenene and Yaounde. On the other
hand if the buyer at makenene cannot afford the product in Yaounde, the product will remain in
Yaounde on the same spot.
Apart from the three factors above advanced by Edward Ullman, the volume of migration or
spatial interaction between two regions depends on other factors such cost, distance, level of
information, cultural barriers, intervening obstacles political atmosphere, population size
and the mode of transport development
Cost. Cost involved all charges incurred before and during travelling. Generally, the higher the
transport cost, the lesser the volume of interaction or migration given that fewer people would be
prepared to pay the high transport cost. Spatial interaction is higher over shorter distance than
longer distances because transport cost over longer distance is higher than over shorter
[Link] cost also depends on the nature of terain, (rugged and swampy regions more
costly), nature of goods transported(perishable, fragile and heavy cargoes are more costly to
transport than nonperishable, less fragile and light products). Apart from monetary cost, other
cost that affect the volume of spartial interaction are cost of feeding, lodging at destination, cost
of preparing for a journey etc. Thus the greater the cost of movement (cost of transport and
others between places, the fewer would be the number that would afford to pay, hence reducing
the volume of interaction between them and vice versa.
Distance: Generally, there is an inverse relationship between distance and the volume of spatial
interaction. The volume of spatial interaction is greater over shorter distances than over longer
distance. The reason for this inverse relationship are higher transport cost for longer distance,
thus reducing interaction, and lower transport cost over shorter distance (increasing interaction),
more information about shorter distances and lower information about far off regions. This
inverse relationship between distance and the volume of interaction has been conceptualized on
the inverse distance law by G.K. zipf and gravity model.
Level of information. Spatial interaction between two places is high if people are well informed
about the area of destination especially on issues such as level of environmental aspect, political
situations and job availabilities. Generally, little information is known about far off places than
nearby places. The increased in information technology such as internet services, telephone etc.
has greatly increased the rate of spatial interaction.
Cultural links/ties. The degree of spatial interaction is greater between places with some
identical cultural aspects like language, ancestral worship, religious worship, education system
and way of life than areas with contrasting cultural aspects. E.g. the volume of migration is
higher between France and French speaking countries in Africa, Britain and common wealth
countries.
Intervening obstacles. These are physical and human features such as rugged or hilly relief,
existence of swamps or floods, large water bodies. The amount of interaction reduces in areas
made up of these obstacles especially in regions where little or no development has taken place.
Conversely where these obstacles are absent or better developed, the amount of interaction will
be high.
 However improvement in technology through the construction of flyovers, drainage, long
bridges has greatly reduced the effects of physical obstacles, thus increasing the volume of
spatial interaction between places.

Population size: The volume of migration is directly proportional to the population size. That
is, the larger the population of the area concerned the greater the volume of interaction and
vice versa. This is illustrated in the gravity model.
The political atmosphere: Spatial interaction is high between two or more places if the two
regions are politically stable (peaceful) and when there is political instability in one or both
countries /regions. Also, in areas where migration laws are strict, the volume of migration
would be low and high in areas where migration laws ate more liberal.
Mode and Development of transport.: Areas with more efficient transport modes tend to have
higher volumes of spatial interaction than those where they are backward. This explains why
spatial interaction is high in MEDCs than LEDCs and also high in urban areas of LEDCs than
rural areas.
Formation of economic unions: 30 Spatial interaction is high between areas that have organized
and grouped themselves into trade blocs than in areas where trade union do not exist. e.g. the
Volume of
expansion of the volume
migrationof spatial
20 interaction between Cameroon, Chad ,Equatorial Quinea,
Gabon, Central Africa Republic DRC is as a result of the existence of CEMAC.
10
LAWS AND THEORIES OF MIGRATION
0
0 100
Concept of distance decay: The 5concept000
20
of distance25
decay is contained in Ravenstein
law, the gravity model and the inverse distance law by zipf.
Generally, distance decay is the lessening in force of a phenomenon or interaction with
increasing distance from the location of maximum intensity. The concept can be applied to
agriculture, phone calls, population migration or interaction, population density etc.
In agriculture, as proposed by von Thunen, the intensity of agriculture reduces with distance
from the market.
 With phone calls, the number of phone calls made increases with distance e.g. many people
in Cameroon, France, Germany etc. make more local calls than long distance calls and more
domestic call
For population densities, the decrease as distance from a central place increases. In
population migration, the volume of migration or interaction between two places decreases as
the distance between them increases as represented below
The above diagram shows an inverse relationship between migration and distance. From the
graph as distance increases, the volume of migration reduces. For example at distance 0 to 05,
the volume of migration is high at 30 and as distance increases to 10km, 20km the volume drops
to 20 ,10, and finally to zero. This clearly shows that more people migrate over shorter than long
distances.
 THE INVERSE DISTANCE LAW THEORY BY G.K ZIPF.
He expanded on the first law of migration by Ravenstein which states that "the volume of
migration is inversely proportional to the distance travelled by the migrants". It is expressed
mathematically as follows
Nij
Nij=the number or migrants from town I to town j
Dij= the distance between the two
towns. This model is illustrated on the following diagram
The inverse distance law applying the formula in the above locations A,B and C, the
number of migrants from town A to B (Nji) will be 1/10 or 0.1 given that Dji is 10km, those
from A to C will be ¼=0.25 and B to C 1/5=0.2. This therefore signified that more people will
travel between A and C will the shorter distance (0.25) followed by B to C (0.02) and the least
number will be between A and C with the longest distance. The inverse relationship means that a
greater number of migrants move over short distance
A and decrease as distance increase.

10km

4km

B
5km
C
Reasons why more people migrate over short distance than over long distances
 Few people can afford transport cost over long distance
 Shorter distances are cheaper and so migrants can afford the cost
 There is limited information about long distance place
 Short distance do not involve a lot of documentation as is the case with long distances.
 There is high risk and hardship involved in long distances than shorter distances.
 Families, friendship ties and heavy family responsibility reduces long range movement
 Communication and language difficulties reduces long distant movement
 Intervening obstacle such as harsh climate poor relief, job opportunities etc. may tend to
limit the number of people moving over long distances.
 THE GRAVITY MODEL : The gravity model is based on two principles
 The volume of migration depends on the distance between two localities or towns. This
simply means that most migrants travel over short distances and the number of migrants
decrease as distance increases.
 The volume of migration size of the two localities concerned. This implies that the
greater the population size and product (various attractions developed by the population)
and size of a town or country, the greater is its ability to attract migrants. The model is
mathematically expressed as

Mij= where
Mij= interaction between two areas I and j
Pij= population of the two localities I and j
Dij= distance between the two localities I and j
The distance between Bamenda, Bafoussam, Fundong, Mamfe and wum can be calculated
using the hypothetical information from the diagram below
Bafossam Fundong(30,0
(100,000pp 00people

80km
60km

Bamenda(12
0000ple)
200k
80km
m

Mamfe(40000
people Wum(40000pl
e)
 a) Movement from Bamenda to Bafoussam

 Bamenda to Wum

i) Bamenda to Mamfe

a) Bamenda to Fundong

From the calculation we noticed that,

  The movement of people between Bamenda and wum with the same distance is different.
This is because of differences in population sizes.
 Mamfe and Fundong with the same population size have different predicted population
movement because of the influence of distance
Weakness of the gravity model
 It fails to consider the effect of intervening opportunities on the volume of migration
between two places.
 The model fails to consider other pull factors of migration flow such as political,
economic, environmental and religious.
 The model fails to consider the mode of transport and difficulty of movement ( That is
the nature of terrain or topography).
 The model does not consider the contrast between regions.
 The level of information available to migrants about the destination is inadequate.
 Intervening opportunities model by A.S Stouffer
Intervening opportunities are all the attractive or pull factors found between a migrant's area of
origin and destination. The model is expressed mathematically as seen below

Nij= where
Nij=Number of competing migrants between town i and j
Oj= The number of opportunities at j
Oij= The number of intervening opportunities between town i and j
The model is made up of two basic principles or notions
 That the volume of migration over a given distance is directly proportional to the number
of opportunities at the point of destination. This implies that the more the opportunities at
the destination, the greater the number of migrants who move into it.
 That the volume of migration is inversely proportional to the number of opportunities
between the point of departure and destination (intervening opportunities). This implies
that the greater the number of intervening opportunities between the two places, the
smaller the volume of migration and vice versa.
Stouffer therefore argued that the number of migrants over a distance was directly related to
the number of opportunities at that distance and inversely related to the number opportunities
that lie along the distance.
Other migration model include
 The theory of migration by Everett lee 1966
 Migration model ofter Hornby and Jones
 The multivariate analysis model by Olsson
CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF MIGRATION
Migration can be classified according to the origins and destinations of migrant’s, internal and
international migration, distance travelled (internal and international), duration or time
(temporary and permanent migration, motives (spontaneous, involuntary and voluntary
movements)
Types of Migration
Migration can be classified into two broad types namely internel and international migration.
 internal migration
It is the movement of people within a country or political unit. Here therefore, migrants do not
cross internal boundaries.
Types of Internal Migration
There are many types of internal migration namely
 Rural urban migration (rural exodus)
 urban-rural migration (inter urban)
 Intra-urban migration.
 Rural-rural migration.
 Inter-regional migration.
 Rhythmic migration.
 Daily migration(commuting)
 Rural-urban migration: It is also known as rural exodus and involves the movement
of people from the countryside (rural areas) to towns (urban areas) e.g. the movement of
people from makenene to Yaoundé in Cameroon.

CAUSES OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION

Push factors: These are factors which are present in the rural areas which cause people to move
out of the rural areas.
A difficult physical environment: Areas with harsh climates, poor soils and rugged relief are
difficult to live in. As a result, such areas repel population e.g. the rookies mountain, the Congo
basin etc.
Repugnant tradition and customs. Many rural people have been forced out of villages because
of traditions that violate human right and liberties. Such traditions, customs such as forceful
marriages, witchcraft, female genital circumcision have sent large waves of migrants into the
surrounding towns and cities. Famine or food shortage
Crop failure: ln most rural areas, farmers always face problems of inadequate farm inputs,
spread of diseases leading to famine and thus triggers off a lot of out migration from rural to
urban areas
 Absolute poverty: Rural poverty stemming from high unemployment and structural
unemployment has forced people out of villages into urban areas to work for white collar jobs.
Rural deprivation: Most rural communities lack basic social amenities like electricity ,pipe
borne water, higher institutions of learning, good medical facilities. This has often pushed the
people out into the surrounding urban areas where these facilities exist.
Over population: Thickly populated areas with high birth rate causes stress on the available
resources (like agricultural land). This has forced the rural population to move to urban areas.
Natural disasters and war: wars/tribal conflicts and repeated episodes of famine and floods in
certain rural areas have sent out waves of rural migrants to urban areas.
Mechanization of agriculture: mechanization in most rural areas often results in high rate of
unemployment. This therefore pushes the unemployment labourers to towns for new jobs.
Pull Factors: These are attractive amenities in towns which are people from the rural areas.
 Availability of employment opportunities.
 Availability of social facilities
 High income and living standards.
 Wrong perception of urban areas.
 Better security guarantees.
 Improvement in transport facilities
Consequence of rural urban migration
 Consequences In the Rural Areas(Source, Origin Or Departure)
 POSITIVE CONSEQUENCE
 Relief of rural population pressure.
 Correction of labour surpluses and reduction of rural unemployment .
 Socio-economic development of rural areas
 Broadening of horizon of rural people
 Negative consequences
 labour shortages.
 Economic stagnation and idle resource.
 Drop in the standard of living.
 A fall in output
 Increase in the cost of labour due to scarcity.
 consequences in urban areas( destination)
 Positive consequences.
1) Increased market potentials.
2) Development of informal sector.
3) Supply of cheap labour
 Negative consequences
  High rate of unemployment.
 Low living standard.
 Housing problems.
 Congestion and over crowding.
 High crime wave pollution.
 High rate of prostitution
Ways of limiting or reducing rural-urban migration and solving problems created
 Measures to limit rural-urban migration
 Provision of public utilities/amenities
 Encouragement of rural development projects.
 Improvement in agriculture.
 Improvement in transport infrastructure.
 Provision of administrative services.
 Measures of solving urban problems
 urban renewal.
 Decentralization or activities.
 Creation of new towns.
 Vertical construction of house.
 Zonation of activities
2. URBAN-RURAL MIGRATION.
This is the movement of people from urban to rural areas. it is always termed as counter-
Urbanisation
Cause of urban-rural migration
Pull Factor. These are factor present in urban areas which force people out of it.
 low cost of living.
 Agricultural attraction.
 Improvement in transport.
 Abundant and cheap labour.
 Environmental attraction.
 Industrial development
Consequences
1) consequences in urban areas(origin or departure)
a) Depopulation of urban areas.
b) Reduction in unemployment.
c) Reduction in urban problems
2) Rural areas( destination)
 Increasing cost of living in rural areas.
  Rural areas gain more labour from urban areas.
 Distortion of natural beauty in rural areas.
 Villages become growth poles.
 Inter-urban(urban to urban) migration
This is the movement of people from one urban area to another. It is usually from towns with
lower level of socio-economic development to those with high levels e.g. Bamenda to Yaounde
Liverpool to London
Causes of inter-urban migration
ii)push factor
i) unemployment.
ii) Absolute poverty.
iii) low wages.
iv) Poor working condition.
v) Improvement in transport.
vi) Over population.
vii) Increasing cost of living .
viii) Limited or
inadequate social facilities
ii)pull factor
A) Availability of job opportunities.
B) Good transport network .
C) High income.
D) Better working conditions.
E) High living standards.
F) Availability of social facilities.
G) Decentralization
Consequences
 Increase population at departure town but increase in receiving town.
 Overcrowding/congestion in receiving towns.
 Increasing cost of living living.
 Economic backwardness in departure towns.
 Greater economic progress in the economically more developed towns
4)Inter-regional migration.
It is the movement of people from one region to another. it could be within countries or between
countries. It is of two types namely colonizing migration and general drifts of population.
Colonizing migration is the movement of people in regions that have not been inhabited for long
but provide good conditions for human habitation. On the other hand, general drifts of people is
usually from the less favoured regions to more favoured one.
Causes of inter-reginal migration
 PUSH FACTORS
 Harsh climate.
 Difficult relief.
 Natural disasters.
 Unemployment.
 Over population .
 Population pressure on land.
 Poor prospects in agriculture and industry .
 Inadequate social facilities.
 Poor governance.
 Political persecution.
 Religious persecution.
 Religious conflicts
(ii) Pull factors
 Favorable climate.
 Good relief.
 Fertile soils absence of natrua disasters.
 Availability of employment opportunities.
 Existence of rich mineral deposits.
 Improvement in transport.
 Availability of social facilities.
 Existence of peace and freedom.
 Good governance.
 Religious freedom or tolerance
Consequences of inter-regional migration
i) Consequences on the departure area
1. Reduction in population.
2. Fall in fertility and growth rate.
3. Age-sex imbalances.
4. Under utilization or few amenities.
5. Limited provision or social amenities.
6. Decrease in the market potentials and purchasing power.
7. Labour shortages and fall in out put.
8. Retards economic development
ii) Consequences at the destination
 Increase in total population.
 Increase in fertility.
 Distortion in the age sex structure.
 Reduction in dependency tatio.
 Provision of more several facilities .
 Social problems such as congestion pollution, high crime wave etc..
 Housing and communication problems.
 Provision of valuable labour force.
 Greater economic development and increase productivity in agricultural and industrial
sector.
 Increase in the market potentials and purchasing power..
 Unemployment resulting from surplus labour force.
Possible remedies to inter-regional migration
 Industrial development.
 Provision of social services and amenities.
 Development of communication network.
 Agricultural improvement.
 Resource exploitation
5) Daily migration (commuting)
It is a regular daily movement of people from their residences to their work places and back. The
migrants involved are known as commuters. A commuter is therefore a person who lives in one
community and work in another. Majority of commuters live in commuter belts or commuter
hinterland or an urban field.
A commuter hinterland is the area surrounding a large town or city where people live and from
which they travel to work in towns or cities. Outwards commuting involves people who live in
towns or cities and are drawn to factories set up in the suburbs (inverse commuters)
Types of commuting
I)Rural-urban commuting: This is when the commuter lives in a small town or village and
travel to work in a larger town or city. The commuter village is sometimes refered to as a
dormitory village or suburbanized village
ii)Intra-urban commuting. This is when people live in suburbs and travel to work in the city
center. it includes inhabitants of inner-city areas who have to make the reverse journey to the
edge of city’s industrial estate and regional shopping centers
iii)High class commuter. These are businessmen, administrators and intellectuals whose
research work or need for personal contacts requires certain residential condition.
REASONS OR CAUSES OF COMMUTING
Improvement in the various modes of transport: lmprovement in the various modes of
transport such as roads, railways have made traveling from far to the city center and back easy
and reliable.
Increase in the ownership of private cars: This facilitate easy movement of commuters and
reduces travelling time to city centers.
Improvement in commercial and industrial development: Improvement in commercial and
industrial development in the city centers attract people to come and work in the morning and
return to their respective residents in the evening
Increase per capital income: Increase in per capita income and high salaries enable commuters
to afford travelling costs.
Inadequate and high cost of housing in urban areas: This forces people to work for cheaper
housing further away from their work places.
The establishment of industrial and regional shopping centers further from the city
Centre: This often result to a reverse movement where people or commuters move from the city
Centre to work in such industrial estate and regional shopping centers
The effects of noises, congestion, pollution etc. In city centers: people prefer to stay in suburbs
in order to avoid noise, congestion, pollution and other socio-economic inconveniences in the
city centers.
The desire of many urban dwellers to live in rural areas or semi-rural environments: People
feel that their need to live in calm and cleaner environments outweighs the disadvantages of time
and cost of travel to work.
Unemployment in city centers: Severe job loss in the city Centre due to closure of many
activities or industrial decline has forced people in such affected areas to look for a work in other
areas of town while maintaining their residence.
The existence of flexible working hours. Working hours allow people to travel during on rush
hour time. That is work begins and ends at different times.
Consequences of commuting
I)Positive consequences or advantages
 It enables great centers of economic activity to recruit sufficient manpower.
 It leads to improvement in transport.
 It encourages socio-economic development around suburbs.
 It provides employment and encourages a reverse movement.
 It reduces pressure on social services and amenities in urban areas.
 It permits people to carry out other activities which subsidises their living.
 It reduces housing problems in urban area
ii) Negative consequences or disadvantages of commuting
A. It results to urban expansion (urban sprawl).
B. It leads to increase in noise and air pollution.
C. It leads to increase in the rate or audients due to high volume of traffic especially during
rush hours..
D. It results to wastage of time which often leads to fatigue and ill-health especially if the
distance covered each day is long
E. Moreso, there is a fall in output in some areas due to overloading/ congestion in bueis
trains etc.
EXTERNAL OR INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION.
It is the movement of people from one country to another or from one continent to another. The
movement of people out of an country or continent is known as emigration while the movement
of people into a country is known as immigration. People may take personal decisions to move
(voluntary) or forced to move( involuntary)
Causes of international migration.
I)Push factors
Economic backwardness: Economic backwardness often characterised by low level of
industrial development, generalized poverty, mass employment, low income and standards of
living have contributed to the movement of people out of such countries
Slavery: Slave trade is a good example of forced population movement where slaved were
transported from West Africa to America to work in their plantations.
Economic crisis faced by countries also triggers off movement into other countries. These crises
led to rampant movements of people from African countries in the latter part of the 20 th century
to neighboring countries
Natural disaster: Natural disasters such as drought, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruption often
lead to crop failure. This forced people to move out of the affected areas.
Overpopulation: Over population often results in unemployment, famine, food shortage,
poverty. A situation which has contributed to high rate of migration from the over populated
areas.
Wars: Wars has been responsible for massive movements across borders into other countries in
the past and present e.g. the first and second world wars has led to massive movement of people
out of the affected areas (refugees)
Political instability: Political instability characterized by civil wars, strikes etc. In most African
countries, political instability has led to a lot of border movements e.g. the civil war Sudan,
Rwanda, Burundi, Central African Republic.
Political persecution: Many people have escaped from one country to the other because they
disagreed with the political regime in place e.g. Many people migrated out of Cameroon after the
presidential elections of 1992.
Dictatorial policies of the government: Dictatorial policies of the government may generate
racial tension in the country and trigger off international movements e.g. the apartheid policy in
South Africa caused many black South Africans to forcefully migrate to neighboring countries.
Religious persecution: Many people have migrated in history escaping from religious
persecution. For instance, many Pilgrim Fathers left Britain in the 17 th century to New England
because they were persecuted.
Religious conflicts between two religious groups: This may trigger off international migration
e.g. the clashed between Muslims and Jews account for the rampant emigration from Palestine.
II) Pull factors
Availability of jobs in industries, transport, commercial activities, better working conditions,
higher wages and living standards has resulted to the movement of people especially from
LEDCs to MEDCs
Abundant and rich natural resources: The presence of abundant and rich natural resources
such as minerals, forest wealth and agricultural products attract migrants from other countries
into countries with these huge resources e.g. the movement of people from Europe to America,
Africa, Asia and Australia with major reasons being to exploit the abundant resources of these
areas.
Favourable immigration policies: The immigration policies of countries such as Australia, New
Zealand, USA, France has resulted to high rate of immigration into such countries.
Democracy: Democratic countries such as Western Europe, USA, Canada etc, with advance
democracies, policies tilted toward human development, freedom and equality between people
attract many migrant from various parts of the world
Religious tolerance. Religious tolerance or freedom may act as a pull factor and attract many
religious groups that have suffered persecution in other countries e.g. Most if not all western
democracies.
Reasons for the increasing volume of international migration
High rate of unemployment in most LEDSs: The collapse of the economies of most LEDCs
has resulted to large scale unemployment. This high rate of unemployment has triggered off
large volumes of migration into the MEDCs where jobs are available.
Increasing wealth in the MEDCs: This make them more attractive and guarantees the ability to
pay the cost of international migration by its citizens.
Improvement in transport: There has been an overall improvement in the various means of
transport. This has made movement easier cheaper and faster.
Increase in global security: The world is becoming a safer place a to work and stay than ever
before. This has encourage so many people to migrate internally
Globalization: Globalization has ensured the free circulation of businesses (trade) thereby
encouraging international migration.
Growth of mass tourism: The increase in income and improvement in the means of movement
has made many people to migrate internationally for Leisure each year
The widening scope of association of nations: Regional groupings such as CEMAC,
ECOWAS, EU etc. with relaxing barriers to movements between its member’s states.
The development of efficient communication systems: The development of efficient
communication systems such as internet services and mobile phones has increased the amount of
information about destinations and thus encouraging and increasing the number of international
migration.
Consequences of international migration.
I)Origin or departure country
1) Reduction in the total population as a result of emigration.
2) Imbalance in the age composition and sex ratio
3) Reduction or shortage in labour force due to high rate of emigration.
4) Reduction in unemployment.
5) Money send home by emigrants may assist the socio-economic development of the
country of origin.
6) Reduction of market potentials for agriculture and industrial goods as a result of large
scale emigration.
7) The creation of economic and political links between countries e.g. between LEDCs and
MEDCs.
8) Loss of the highly educated to the receiving countries, underutilization of social
services /amenities like schools, pipe borne water, electricity etc.
9) Breaking up of deeply cherished family and friendly ties there by creating an imbalance
within the community left behind.
Consequences on destination or receiving countries
1) Large-scale immigration often leading to increase in the total population of the receiving
country.
2) Increase in the rate of population growth as a result of increase in birth rate given that
most immigrants are of the reproductive age group.
3) Age-sex imbalance due to the age and sex selective effects of migration especially over
long distances
4) Reduction in dependency ratio as most immigrants are adult male who can work to
support the other age group.
5) The pyramid on the adult male side bulges indicating an increase in the proportion of the
male adult age group.
6) Pressure and overcrowding on social service and amenities of the receiving countries.
 7) The receiving country may benefit a significant proportion or highly skilled and educated
professional population like teachers, medical doctors, engineers which will bring new
skills.
8) Mixing of races leading to the development of multi-racial society
9) Increase in the labour supply of the receiving countries due to the presence of the young
adults..
10) Increase in the market potentials of recipient countries due to increase population.
11) Economic development due to investments and exploitation of the environment by
immigrants.
12) It influences wage rates, per capital output, standard of living and balance of international
payment.

REFUGEE MOVEMENT (REFUGEEISM)

it refers to involuntary movement involving people who are forced by undesirable
circumstance to leave their country of origin to other countries. A refugee is therefore a person
who flee from his home and country to find refuge or safety in another country.
Refugees can be classified into those who move out of their countries into the other but their stay
there is temporal(semi-permanent) and those who migrate into a country and never hope to return
(permanent refugees)
Causes of refugee movement
 Political instability exhibited by war and dictatorial governments.
 Natural disasters such as floods, landslides, volcanic eruption, drought, earthquake.
 Religious persecution or conflicts provoke refugee movement.
 Ethnic cleansing or the practice of driving out of an area the people of one race or
religion by those of another.
 Acute labour shortage and crop failure caused by pests and diseases
Consequences of refugee movement
 Departure country
 Reduction in population.
 Fall in labour force due to loss of active population.
 Unemployment, food shortage, poverty especially in countries devastated by war.
 Drop in the rate of population growth as many people of the reproductive age group
move out.
 There may be some improvement in living standards as the massive out flow of
population reduce as pressure on resources
b) Consequence on receiving countries
1) Increase in total population.
2) Overcrowding/congestion on social/public amenities such as schools, hospitals etc.
 3) Food shortage which often lead to starvation, famine and deaths of many refugees.
4) High unemployment and poverty resulting from high crime wave like stealing,
prostitution, drug addiction etc.
5) Rapid spread of diseases like chicken pox, HIV/AIDS etc, especially in refugee camps.
6) Increase Urbanisation and urban problems such as housing problems, water scarcity
pollution etc.
7) living standards of refugees are very low given that they are unemployed and have to a
large extent depend on international human turian organizations for subsistence.
8) Age and sex imbalance. Children and females dominating and most often the education
of the children are disturbed.
9) A lot of malnutrition especially amount infants due to poor diet and inadequate food
supply.
Measures to alleviate refugee problems
 Development of refugee camps.
 Financial material and moral support
 Peace keeping forces to politically unstable areas.
 Development of projects such as in agriculture, industries etc.
 Providing solutions to reasons for movement
REVISION QUESTIONS
1)a) what do you understand by “spatial interaction” as used in population geography (5mks)
2)Discuss the factors that might influence the amount of spatial interaction between two places
(20mks)
3)To what extend are cost likely to affect the volume of migration between two distance places
(25mks)
4)Discuss the view that migration in any form is selective in terms of the socio-economic
characteristic of the population (25mks)
5)“The movement of people between two regions is determined by the degree to which the
regions complement each other’s”. How far do you agree?. (25mks)
6) Discuss and illustrate the view that population migrations are selective in types and groups of
people involve (25mks)
7) Discuss the term “distance Decay” in the context of population movement and show how
distance affect population movement over space. (25mks)
8) “The volume of migration is inversely proportional to the distance travelled by the migrant”.
Critically examine the truth of this statement? (25mks)
9)a) With reference to specific example, account for the increasing wave of international
migration in many parts of the world today. (10mks)
b) Briefly discuss the consequence of such migration on the regions of origin and destination.
(15mks)
10) Examine the causes and consequences of inter-regional migration. (25mks)
a)define the term commuting as used in population geography (10mks)
b) Discuss the factors favouring commuting pattern and the effects of such patterns (15mks)
11) To what extend does the search for work provide a satisfactory explanation for rural-to urban
migration (25mks)
12) “The movement of people from place to place can be viewed as a spontaneous human effort
to achieve a balance between population and resources” discuss. (25mks)
13a) what do you understand by refugeism(9mks)
b) Discuss the causes, consequence and measures to alleviate refugee problems (16mks)
POPULATION/RESOURCE RELATIONSHIPS
A resource is any substance in the physical environment that has value or is useful to human
beings and is economically feasible and socially acceptable to use or a gift satisfy our needs,
provided it is technologically acceptable.
Types of resources
There are two types of resources namely human and natural resource
 Human resources: Human resource are many intelligence and physical ability applied to
create or produce anything useful.
 Natural resourcee: They are properties or substances of the physical environment that
can be used in one way or the other to satisfy human wants e.g. Rocks, soils, minerals,
water etc.
Classification of resources
Resources can be classified into inexhaustible resource, renewable resources and non-
renewable resources.
I)Inexhaustible resource: These are resources that cannot get finished when they are exploited
e.g. air, solar energy etc.
ii) Renewable resources: These are resources that can be replaced in a relatively short period of
time when used.e.g. Vegetation or forest, water, fish, animals, soil, hydro-electric power solar
energy and biomass
iii) Non-renewable resources: These are resources that once exploited, they are exhausted and
cannot be replaced e.g. oil or petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, manganese, copper, iron ore
bauxite.
USES AND CHALLENGES OF RESOURCE
 Natural resources are used for food, health, transport and communication, energy and
recreation.
On the other hand major challenges or threats to resources are rapid population growth,
pollution, overexploitation, environment degration and climate change and emergence of
diseases.
POPULATION/RESOURCE RELATIONSHIP
I) OPTIMUM POPULATION
It is a situation where by the population’s demand for resources is adequately satisfied by the
available resources. it occurs when the level of technology development of the country permits
the transformation of the available resources to adequately meet up with the needs of the
population.
Forms of optimum population are economic optimum, power optimum and optimum rhythm
of growth.
Economic optimum population is the size of population which for a given area, allows the
sustainable utilization of resources and achieves the greatest per capital output and the highest
standard of living
Power optimum is the population which achieves the greatest level of production above
that which is require for its own subsistence.
Optimum rhythm of population is the level of population growth that best utilizes the
resources and technology available
Indicators of optimum population
 High average standard of living.
 Full employment.
 Fairly balanced age sex population structure.
 Large and high purchasing power..
 High exchange rate.
 High cultivable land.
 Sustainable management of resource
Factors influencing optimum population
 The size of the area.
 The geography of the area.
 Stage of technological progress.
 Quality of communication
Optimum population is a dynamic concept because it changes overtime and space in
accordance with economic and social changes. The factors responsible for the dynamism of the
concept are
  Changes in technology.
 Changes in demographic structure/characteristics.
 Discovery of new resources.
 Trade relation.
 Decline resources.
 Changes in territorial
N.B: Countries where optimum population has nearly been achieved are North Western Europe,
USA, Canada, and Japan.
ii) Over population
Over population is a situation where the population is more than the available resources
leading to low standards of living
Over population may result from increase in population, decline in the demand for
labour, decline in available resources. Countries experiencing over population are Bangladesh,
Ethiopia and part of China, Brazil and India.
There are two types of Overpopulation namely absolute over population and relative
Over population
Absolute Over population is a situation where there is maximum exploitation and
utilization of resources yet living standards remain low and there is no hope to transform
resources from stock.
Relative overpopulation is a situation where in the population is increasing faster than the
rate of resources development and present production is inadequate for the population although
there are chances for greater production.
Indicators of overpopulation
 Massive outmigration or emigration.
 High rate of unemployment.
 Low per capita income.
 Low average living standards.
 High population density.
 Famine leading to hunger and malnutrition.
 Population pressure on the available resource.
 Widespread social unrest.
 Low exchange rate
 Low purchasing power although with large market potential.
Possible solutions or ways to check overpopulation
(a) The use of birth control methods through family planning, use of contraceptives like
condoms.
 (b) Encouraging out migration and emigration to other countries.
(c) Encouraging high level of industrialization that will create employment opportunities and
increase living standards.
(d) Increasing and improving on agricultural techniques that will increase the supply of food
sources.
(e) Agricultural lands could equally be expanded upon through irrigation and land
reclamation
ii) Under population
It is when the population is too small to utilize fully its resources. It occurs when there are
far more resources in an area than could be used by people currently living there.
It occurs because of better diet, good sanitary and health care, high educational standards,
better knowledge of birth control methods, better social welfare system and careful or judicious
use of available resources; examples of under populated countries are Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, Gabon, Kuwait etc.
There are two types of under population namely absolute and relative under population.
Absolute under population exist when the population is incapable of normal demographic
replacement or inadequate economic production while relative under population occurs where
there are far more resources in an area like food, energy and minerals than the number of people
living in that area can use.
Indicators of under population
I) Indicators in LEDCs
1) Presence of vast untapped resources.
2) Low per capita income and low living standards since resources are unexploited.
3) Possible inflow of migrants with foreign technology to exploit resources.
4) Low socio-economic development
(ii) Indicators in MEDCs
 Luxurious average living standards due to high per capita income.
 Existence of untapped resources because they are much
 wasteful usage of resources if not controlled.
 High rate of immigration
Ways or possible ways to check over population
 Immigration should be encouraged and emigration discourage.
 Change in agricultural system so as to stimulate agricultural expansion
 Exportation of some of the resources to foreign countries.
 Transfer of technology and personnel to enable exploitation of idle resources
 Improvement in medical facilities and diet in backward societies
  Government may encourage high birth rate by prohibiting all forms of birth control
measures
Measuring of overpopulation, under population and optimum population.
The following eight indices can be used to measure the concepts of under, over and optimum
 Finding the per capital income.
 Investigating the level of employment.
 Existence of diminishing return.
 Finding out whether migration is out or in migration(emigration or immigration).
 Checking the life expectancy.
 Nothing the changes, which exist in terms of international trade.
 Measuring the population density.
 Examining the changes in consumption pattern.
Difficulties encountered when attempting to measure over population, under population optimum
population
 The actual level of technology is difficult to measure given that it continuously changes
over time and space.
 It uses subjective attributes as living standards whose data for developing countries is
difficult to obtain.
 Aspects that affect population numbers of a country like wars, migration, birth and death
rates etc. may make it difficult to measure.
 It is difficult getting actual population data through the various sources or population
statistics..
 The concepts are dynamic and subjected to natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes
etc. making the states or resources to be difficult to determine at any given moment..
 The knowledge of potential resource is difficult because some resources may still be
hidden such that the real quantity is not known.

The exponential growth model and the concept of carrying capacity

 The exponential growth model explains the various ways in which an exponential
population growth may adjust to existing conditions of the environment before reaching the
carrying capacity otherwise known as population ceiling . It is made up of the carrying capacity
concept and population trap concept.
i) The carrying capacity concept: It is the maximum potential number of people that the
resource of a particular area or environment can support or the level at which existing resources
can sustain the expanding population.
It was introduced by Malthus in the concept of population ceiling which is a level where
the environment is saturated, such that the population just equals the carrying capacity of the
environment. Beyond the ceiling the environment will be unable to support the extra number of
people. As the population grows towards the carrying capacity, it undergoes various adjustments
as seen below.
I)Instantaneous adjustment: It shows that the rate of increase in population is unchanged until
the ceiling is reached. At the ceiling population, growth suddenly stops and the rate of increase
becomes zero. There is no increase in population numbers indicating that fertility is zero. It is not
real in life situation.
N.B: Population increase, reaches the ceiling and stops abruptly
ii) Progressive or gradual adjustment (the s-curve): Progressive adjustment occurs when
population growth slows down before the ceiling is reached. It is more realistic in life and occurs
in most MEDCs where higher economic development and education have led to greater birth
control that slows down the rate of population increase. It is claimed that populations which are
large in size have long life expectancy and low fertility rates conform to this “s” curve pattern.
III)progressive approximation or fluctuating gradual adjustment (the j-curve): This
adjustment show population rising and going beyond or exceeding the carrying capacity resulting
to sudden checks such as famine , war, diseases, birth control etc., which causes a fall in the total
population.. After sometime, the population receivers and then fluctuates, eventually settling
down at the carrying capacity. The curve here is “J” shaped.
 N.B: when population growth increases rapidly and goes beyond the carrying capacity, it is
termed population overshoot.
b) The population trap concept.
it is a situation where there is a rapid rate of population growth without a corresponding increase
in resources, technology or income to sustain the growth making the population to be in [Link]
occurs because of high birth rate decline or exhaustion of resources low technology and rampant
immigration.

Rate of population
X
increase

Population
% Y

Z
X1
Rate of resource
increase

Time
Population trap situation B1 B2

The low level equilibrium trap commences at the point of intersection between the rate or
population increase and the rate of income (point x1)
At 2, the population reduces or falls rapidly. When this happens, the population will
finally escape from the trap situation as it gives below the rate of income increase at B2
AT Y, the population reduces or falls gradually. This fall in the population eventually
makes it to escape from the trap situation. The situation in point x and y may be as a result of the
implementation of preventive or destructive checks leading to increase in living standard.
Point x illustrate a situation where the population continues to increase above the rate of
income increase or resources and is unable to extricate or free itself from the trap.
Some countries are unable to free themselves from the trap situation at x in the diagram
because of the low level of technology, poverty or low per capital income, rapid or
continuous increase in population
The population can however extricate or free itself from the trap situation through
implementation of birth control measures, late marriages, emigratio, rise in mortality
through natural hazard war etc.
THEORIES OF POPULATION GROWTH AND RESOURCES
  THE MALTHUSIAN THEORY
Reverent Thomas Malthus was a British demographer and clergy man who was the leading and
strong supporter of the idea of reduction in population growth (pessimistic). He saw population
growth as a “curse". He published in 1798 his view in a document titled “essay on the principle
of population growth”. He believe that there was a finite optimum population size in relation to
food supply and that an increase in population beyond that point would lead to a decline in living
standards, war, famine and disease.
HIS AIMS
 Malthus was out to investigate on how population growing unchecked will affect food.
Malthus based his idea on two main assumption.
 That there is a universt tendency for population to increase.
 That food is necessary for the existence of mankind
HIS PRINCIPLES
He devised two principles based on his theory.
A) That world population if unchecked grows at a geometric or exponential rate i.e.
1,2,,4,8,6,12 etc. and tends to double every 25years.
B) That the means of subsistence(food supply) even under excellent conditions only increase
at an arithmetic rate. That is 1,2,3,4,5,6 etc. as seen on the table and graph below

Malthus suggested that when the population ceiling or optimum is reached and there is any
further growth in population private or preventive and positive or destructive checks will set
in and curb or reduce the growth. He then suggested the following checks
 Private, negative or preventive checks: These were methods of limiting population growth
voluntarily by man and include.
 Abstinence.
 Delayed marriage
 Natural family planning.
 Celibacy( not getting and having sexual relationship).chastity (having sex only with the
person you are married to )
  positive or destructive checks: These were checks imposed by the environment to reduce
population growth involuntarily through increase in death rate and include; diseases,
epidemics, natural disasters, famine and plaques (misery), wars, accidents,
infanticide(vices)

Criticisms or weaknesses of the Malthusian theory.

Malthus was short sighted and did not foresee the following
 Improvement in the means of transport which allows for more efficient trade between
regions.
 Intensification of agriculture leading to greater output.
 Improvement in technology leading to an increased in cultivable land.
 Discovering of new resources of food in the seas and ocean thereby increasing food
resources.
 The industrial revolution which helped to transformed agricultural mineral to usable
products.
 Oversimplification of the model based on potential than on actual population growth and
production.
 Malthus did not foresee the effects of external influences such as wars, natural disasters
on population which often result in the reduction of population of the affected area.
 Population has not been growing in the geometric rate as he predicted especially in the
MEDCs due to the massive implementation birth control measures.
ESTHER BOSERUP’S THEORY
Esther Boserup was an optimist and a Danish economist who saw population growth as a
blessing. She came out with his publication titled “the conditions of agricultural growth in 1965.
She suggested in a purely subsistence society, an increase in population instead stimulate
agricultural production on or brought about a change in agriculture techniques so that more food
could be produced to feed the increasing population. according to her, population growth enables
agricultural development to occur given that as the number of people increase, more food is
needed to feed them and so they have to develope means which would increase output.
Hence she concluded that “necessity is the mother of invention” that is population growth is a
blessing because man is borne with a pair of hands to work. Necessity is the need for more food
as population increase and inventions are the innovations put in place to increase agricultural
output.

The relationship between population growth and food suppy

The diagram depicts that as population continue to increase innovations are put in place to make
food resources to expand.
Boserup outlined changes from forest fallow cultivation to bush fallowing with increasing
intense cropping, to a short fallow cultivation, to animal cropping and finally to multiple-
cropping system where plough are used replacing crude tools. This last system is the most
intensive with weeding becoming More frequent and manure fully introduced leading to high
yields.
CRITICISMS/WEAKNESSES OR LIMITATIONS OF ESTHER BOSERUP’S THEORY
 She did not forsee the disastrous effects of natural disasters such as flood, drough etc in
agriculture which may lead to crop failure resulting to food shortages.
 She did not consider migration which can also lead to a rapid population increase and
affect food supply.
 She described agricultural system simply in terms of intensity of production which is not
the case because different types of systems occur at a griven intensity.
 She assumes as if the people are borne with high level or technology which is not true
because even if the level or technology is there some people are not still willing to apply
them.
  when population continues to grow rapidily without being checked at a certain stage,
cultivable land becomes very limited resulting to food shortage.
MALTHUS AND BOSERUP COMPARED
i) SIMILARITIES
 Both sources examine the relationship between population growth and the rate of increase
in food resource.
 Boserup’s idea of population growth is similar to that of Malthus only in the short-run in
that population is growing more than food resource.
Ii)CONSTRAST OR DIFFERENCES
 Population does not decline in Boserup’s but it does at a certain point in Malthus.
 Malthus theory explains situations of over population where as that of Boserup pertains
to situations of under population..
 Malthus was a British demographer and developed his theory in the late 18 th century
(1789) while Boserup was a Danish economist who developed his theory in the 20 th
century (1865)
 Food resources drop and gap narrows untill where population catches up with food
resources goes beyond while food resource in Boserup continue to expand and the gap
between food and population widen.
 Malthus said an increase in population will bring about disaster if not checked while
occording to Boserup, food resources grow more than the population in the long run due
to the adoption of new tecniques caused by population growth.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1a) Explain the following concepts as used in population geography
i)Optimum population (Ii)Under population (III)Over population
b)With reference to examples from the regions of the world, discuss the measures used to control
over population (13mks)
2a) Explain what is meant by the terms under population and over population and discuss the
difficulties encountered when attempting to measure the population m (20mks)
b) Suggest possible ways of relieving either under population or Over population. (5mks)
3) Critically examine the symptoms which are assumed to indicate that a country is over
population (25mks)
4)”Densely populated areas are not necessarily over population”. Critically examine this
statement.
5a) Explain the various types of optimum population and bring out the symptoms of optimum
population (20mks)
b) Examine the difficulties encountered when attempting to measure optimum population (5mks)
6a) What do you understand by the “carrying capacity” as used in population geography (8mks)
b) Discuss the economic measures of controlling over or under population (17mks)
7) Population growth is a curse and a blessing. Discuss (25mks)
8a) Critically example the Malthusian and Boserup’s theory on population(15mks)
b) Compare Malthus and Boserup’s theory (10mks)
9) “Necessity is the mother of invention”. Discuss the validity of this view with reference to any
population resource theory (25mks)
10) How far is it true that the pressure of population on resource must not always be looked upon
as trends towards man’s doom (25mks?)
POPULATION GEOGRAPHY OF CAMEROON
A) POPULATION CHANGE
The population of Cameroon has witnessed a rapid growth rate since Independence.
Cameroon has a total surface area of 475.000km2 and its Population is unevenly distributed over
the national territory. The country is made up of densely populated areas, moderately populated
areas and sparsely populated areas as seen on the map below.
Population distribution in Cameroon
SPATIAL PATTERN OF POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN CAMEROON

Generally, the population of Cameroon is unevenly distributed. The population density

figure of 41 persons per Km2 gives a false impression that all parts of the country are inhabited.
But only about 23% of the total surface area is inhabited while the rest is either made up of
accidental relief, swampy land or covered by thick forests. Therefore, the country’s population is
unevenly distributed. The distribution patterns make Cameroon to completely have regions of
dense, moderate and sparse populations.
A) Regions of High Population Density: These are regions or areas whose population densities
are between 100 and 200 persons per km2. The densely populated areas include:
1) The western highlands stretching down in a narrow part into the Mungo Division.
2) The Eastern section of the coastal lowlands.
3) The western section of south Cameroon low plateau.
4) Mandara Mountains stretching to the Diamare plains.
B) Areas or regions of Sparse Population Density: These areas have a density of between 0-39
persons per km2. The sparsely populated areas include:
 The Adamawa Plateau.
 The South-eastern part of the south Cameroon low plateau.
 The Mamfe and Ndian depressions on the western part of the Coastal Lowland.
 The Western Cameroon-Nigerian border around Fura-awa, Nwa, the Nkam, Campo and
Mayo Rey areas.
C) Areas or regions of Moderate Population Density: Population densities here range between 40
and 79 persons per km2. The moderately populated areas include;
 The North lowland and the Benue valley.
 The area between Bafia to Edea along the Sangha River.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SPATIAL PATTERN OF POPULATION

DISTRIBUTION IN CAMEROON
The uneven distribution of population in Cameroon and contrast in density is caused by
physical and human factors.
A) Physical factors
Climate Differences: Climate affects population through rainfall and temperature which has
direct effect on human comfort and indirectly through human activities. The cool mountain
climate of the Western Highlands and Mandara mountains has attracted a high population
density. This is because the climate makes people comfortable and also favours intensive
agriculture.
 Conversely, the Equatorial climate of the Southern region characterised by heavy rainfall
of over 2000mm which leaches the ferrallitic soils, favours the breathing of mosquitoes/tsetse
flies and the growth of dense rainforest vegetation which is difficult to penetrate hence, creating
sparse population. A good example is the South Eastern section of the South Cameroon low
plateau. Also, parts of the Northern region have sparse population because of drought which
causes crop failure, livestock mortality, famine/misery and out-migration.
Relief Diversity: The heterogeneous relief of Cameroon has influenced the distribution and
density pattern of population. Highlands such as Adamawa plateau are sparsely populated (below
10 persons per km2) because of accidented relief, steep slopes and rugged surfaces which hinder
the construction of settlements and transport facilities. The ferruginous soil and erosion surfaces
hinder crop farming hence the practice of extensive cattle rearing which does not support a large
population. However, some highland regions such as the Western highlands and the Mandara
Mountains are densely populated. This is because these highlands have cool and fresh mountain
climates.
Conversely, lowlands regions such as the coastal lowlands, the Diamare plains, the Benue
plains and the Western section of the Southern low plateau have high population density. This is
because their level topography favours the location and expansion of plantations, industries and
cities like Douala, Yaounde, Garoua and Maroua which have attracted many people to the
regions.
Variation in Soils: Areas with fertile soils have high population density whereas areas with
infertile soils tend to have low population density. The fertile volcanic and the alluvial soils of
the coastal lowlands, Mandara Mountains, Diamare plains and parts of the Western highlands
have favoured the location and expansion of cash and food crop farming systems which have
attracted a dense population. The coastal plantations supply raw materials which also attract
industries to the region while food crop farms ensure food self-sufficiency which supports dense
population. This is thanks to the presence of fertile soils.
Conversely, the infertile ferrallitic soils of the Southern low plateau have caused a sparse
population in the South East Pygmy region because the soils lack nutrients due to heavy
leaching. This favours shifting cultivation which support low population density. Also, the
ferruginous soils of the Adamawa plateau are characterised with hard pans and insufficient
nutrients which hinder crop cultivation and favours only pastoral nomadism which requires
sparse population. The water logged hydromorphic soils of the Rio-Del-Ray basin hinders
agricultural development, hence supporting a sparse population of fishermen.
Variation in Drainage: The distribution of population in Cameroon also reflects the drainage
conditions. The swampy or poorly drained areas of Rio-Del-Ray, Indian basin and South East
Pygmy region of the Southern low plateau are sparsely populated. This is because the regions are
breeding grounds for mosquitoes and tsetse flies and hinder the location and expansion of towns,
plantations and industries. Also, the absence of permanent streams in some parts of Northern
Cameroon leads to low population density.
 Conversely, the presence of large and fast flowing rivers such as river Sanaga, Wouri and
Mungo in the coastal lowlands and the Western section of the southern Cameroon low plateau
attract a large population for transportation, domestic use, fishing, etc.
Biotic Factors: Biotic elements such as diseases and insect pest have also influenced population
distribution in Cameroon. The prevalence of disease vectors such as mosquitoes which cause
malaria and tsetse flies which causes sleeping sickness has resulted to sparse population in the
Indian basin, Mamfe basin and South East Pygmy region. Also, the presence of the thick tropical
rainforest in the South Eastern part, Mamfe and Ndian basins makes it difficult to penetrate these
areas for settlement.
Conversely, the Savanna regions such as the Western highlands, Mandara Mountains and
Diamare plains are densely populated. This is because such grasslands are easy to penetrate and
construct settlement. Also, there are no breeding grounds for disease carrying insects such as
mosquitoes and tsetse flies.
B) Human factors
Historical Factor (Population Migration): The distribution of the population in Cameroon also
reflects historical factors such as Islamic jihads, slave trade, wars and colonization. The high
population density of the western highlands resulted from the migration of the Tikari, Bali,
Chamba, Bamileke, etc. from the North because of the Jihads of Usman Dan Fodio, famine and
war. These groups of people established densely populated chiefdoms in the western highlands
such as Bali, Bafut, Nso, Mankong, Bamoum and Bamileke kingdoms. The Mandara Mountains
is densely populated because of the Islamic Jihads which caused the Pagans or “kirdis” tribe to
climb up the mountains to easily detect and fight the crusaders. Therefore, the Western highlands
and Mandara Mountains were refuge zones.
Also, the coastal lowlands are densely, populated because of the European colonial
masters who created plantations and agro-industries in the regions. This led to the migration of
many people from the Western highlands to the coastal lowlands hence increasing the population
density. The colonial masters also created towns such as Douala, Buea and Limbe which attracts
many people today.
Conversely, the low population density of Adamawa plateau resulted from the region
being constantly raided for slaves to be sold to Europeans and Arabs.
The Influence of Agriculture: In Cameroon, regions of plantation and intensive farming
systems are densely populated whereas areas of extensive farming systems such as shifting
cultivation, pastoral nomadism are sparsely populated. Plantation and food farming in the coastal
lowlands have attracted a high population density for farming, employment and also because
food farming ensures food-sufficiency. The Western highlands, Diamare plains and Mid Sanaga
and Nyong river valleys on the Western section of Southern low plateau are densely populated
due to farming especially market gardening, rice farming, as well as plantation.
 Conversely, the low agricultural activities on the South East Pygmy region, Adamawa
plateau and Indian basins caused by poor soils have resulted to low population density. This is
because there is no sufficient food to support a dense population. The leached ferrallitic soils of
South East section of Southern plateau favours shifting cultivation which favours a sparse
population. The water-logged soils of Rio-Del-Ray in Ndian basin hinders agriculture, hence low
population density.
Industrialisation: The industrial regions of Cameroon are densely populated such as the
Coastal, Central, North and Western industrial regions. This is because these regions have many
industries such as food processing, chemical, textile, engineering and wood processing industries
which attract many people especially employment.
Conversely, regions with few or no industries such as the South East Pygmy regions,
Adamawa plateau, Mamfe and Indian basins are sparsely populated. This is because they offer
limited employment opportunities and are therefore, less attractive to people.
Transport Development: The improvement of the country’s transport system network since
independence has stimulated population migration and redistribution. This is because roads,
railways, seaports and airports have been constructed. The densely populated regions such as the
coastal lowlands, Western highlands, Diamare plains and Western sections of the Southern
plateau are well linked by these transport modes e.g. the presence of seaports, roads, railways, in
the coastal lowlands. Conversely, areas with low transport connectivity are sparsely populated.
The sparsely populated regions such as the South East Pygmy region, Adamawa plateau, South
East Benue depression, Indian and Mamfe basins lack good transport systems like roads,
railways, airways and water ways.
Urbanisation: Areas with many towns are densely populated while less urbanized areas are
sparsely populated. Highly urbanised areas such as the Coastal lowlands, Western highlands,
Mandara Mountains and the Western section of the Southern Cameroon plateau. These areas
have large towns such as Douala, Limbe, Kribi, Yaounde, Barfia, Bamenda, Bafoussam,
Dschang, Foumbot, Nkongsamba, Garoua, Maroua, Mokolo, Yagoua, etc. which attract high
population concentrations. This is because they have many functions such as commercial,
industrial, educational, administrative, and religious centers which attract people.
Conversely, areas with low rates of urbanisation such as the Adamawa plateau, Indian and
Mamfe basins, the South Eastern section of the Southern low plateau have a low population
density. This is because they have low levels of development characterised by a deficiency of
socio-economic facilities such as industries, roads, electricity, portable water, health care and
good schools.
Availability of social facilities: Population is high in areas of well-planned education
atmosphere like the availability of universities, professional schools, and good specialised
hospitals, pipe borne water, leisure facilities and planned developments. The coastal lowlands
and Western highlands of Cameroon with good education facilities like the university of Douala,
Dschang, Buea, and Polytechniques attracts Population for high education attainment.
Conversely, Population is low in areas which universities, professional schools, good
specialised hospitals, pipe borne water etc are either inadequate or absent. This explains why the
the Adamawa plateau, the Benue and Logone basins, the Mamfe and Ndian depressions are
sparsely populated.
Areas of high population density
i) The Western Highlands
This is the most extensive region of dense population in Cameroon. The region includes the
Bamenda highlands, the Bamileke plateau and the Bamoum high plains.
Reasons for high population density in the Western Highlands
Favourable and Conducive Climate: This zone has cool and fresh climate modified by relief
since it is located some 2000meters above sea level. It is the base of early European Settlement
since it's climate was much similar to the Temperate regions climate that greatly favours human
Settlement. This climate does not favour the prevalence of disease carrying mosquitoes and
support the growth of crops hence conducive for man.
Fertile soils: The Western highlands contain the most fertile soils of Cameroon that greatly
support agriculture. The fertile volcanic soils of the Tikar Plain and the volcanic soils of the Mbo
plain, Ndop plain and the Menchum valley favours intensive farming like market gardening, rice
Cultivation and plantation agriculture like C.D.C, PALMOL, SOCAPALM, tea at Ndu and
Djutittsa. This has made it possible for the region to accommodate a strong concentration of
Population.
The presence of grassland Vegetation: The sudano- Guinea (Portland) Savanna is the principal
vegetation types of this region. Not only does it make it easy for the area to be colonised but
equally makes good pasture for livestock which adds to the food self-employed sufficiency of the
region. The ease with which this Vegetation can be cleared (using fire and other crude tools) has
Promoted agriculture and the growth of many Settlements with a compact appearance.
High birth/ fertility rates: The western highlands are noted for high fertility and birth rates. The
average family size is 7 persons/ household. These high fertility rate and birth rate can be
attributed to early marriages, polygamous marriages, customs and traditions which promote child
birth, illiteracy and poor family planning. The high fertility, high birth rate, but declining death
rates have greatly increased Population concentration in the western highlands.
Availability of social facilities: The western highland is made up of good tarred roads, railway
that eases rural exodus. The presence of good hospitals, universities, professional schools (E.N.S
Baanbili, ENSETS Bambili, Polytechnique Bambui) and industries are pulling factors of
Population.
II)THE COASTAL LOWLANDS: The coastal lowlands cover towns such as Douala, Tiko,
Edea, Kumba and Nkongsamba. It extends from the slopes of Mt. Fako to the shores of Mt.
Muanenguba. Population density here range from 60 Persons/Km2 in the peripheries to more
than 200persons/ Km2 around the Douala basins and Littoral region.
Factors accounting for the high population density in the coastal lowland
Favourable climate: The climate of this region is fresh being influenced by relief. The fresh
Montane climate around the slope of Mt Cameroon attract Population concentration.
Fertile Soils: The rich volcanic and alluvial soils of the Coastal lowlands especially on the
slopes of Mount Cameroon, Mount Kupe-Maneguba, Tiko plains, Mungo plains, etc. have
attracted many capitalist and peasant plantations. These plantations include the capitalist
plantation of oil palm, banana, rubber, tea (at Tole) as well as peasant plantations of cocoa,
pineapple and robusta coffee. The fertile soils also favour the cultivation of many food crops
such as yams, cocoyams, beans and plantains which attract a population density.
Favourable relief: The level nature of the coastal lowlands especially Mungo, Mbo, Tiko,
Douala plains facilitate the use of machines. This explains why it is made up of high agro-
Industrial plantations such as the C.D.C Delmonte, Banana plantations, SOCAPALM etc. The
presence of these plantations encourage food processing Industries to be located in the coastal
lowlands. This pulls population for employment opportunities.
Historical Factors (Population Movement): Most tribes in the Coastal regions migrated into
the area from other places. History holds that the Doualas, Batangas and Balondos migrated from
the Bantu area of the Congo basin. The Bakweri migrated from the Bomboko behind Mount
Cameroon to settle in Buea, Limbe, Mutengene, Bojongo, etc. These groups migrated to the
Coastal regions mainly to practice fishing. Also, the early contact of the coastal people with the
colonial masters such as the Germans, British and French attract a dense population to the
Coastal region for trade and employment in the coastal populations.
Attractive Economic Activities: The Coastal region has many manufacturing industries and
commercial activities. The main industrial districts of the Coastal lowlands such as Douala,
Tiko-Limbe, Edea, and Dibombari emerging Kumba attract a high population density. This is
because the industries here offer many job opportunities there by attracting many people for
employment. Douala which is the largest industrial center of Cameroon hosting over 70% of the
country’s manufacturing industries has a large population over 2 million people.
Government Influence: Since independence, the Cameroon government has equipped the
Coastal lowlands with good transport (highways, seaports, railways) health, education and
administrative facilities which have attracted a high population. Roads from Limbe, Bafoussam,
Yaounde and Kribi meet at Douala bringing in people from different places. The Trans-
Cameroon railway line radiates out from Douala, to Kumba and Edea to Yaounde right to
Ngoundere. These roads and railway facilitate rural-urban migration into the Coastal regions.
The presence of the Douala airport as well as the seaports of Douala, and Limbe also facilitates
the movement of people and economic activities. Also, the presence of state sponsored projects
such as hospitals, university institutions in Douala and Buea, colleges and training centers, pipe-
borne water, telecommunication, cinema and electricity have attracted a dense population into
the Coastal lowlands.
III) THE MANDARA MOUNTAINS AND THE DIAMARE PLAIN
These regions englobe the uplands of the Mandara such as Rumpsiki and Kapsiki
Mountains on the Western border with Nigeria and the vast plains of the Diamare around
Maroua. Average population density is about 50 to 100 persons per km 2 on the Diamare plains
but exceeds 100 persons/km2 in the Koza district North of Mokolo town on the Mandara
Mountains.
Reasons for high population density within the Mandara mountain and the
Diamare plain

A) Physical factors
Conducive Climate: The fresh mountain climate of the Mandara Mountains characterised by
rainfall of about 1000mm and temperatures of about 21°c offers an Island of a conducive climate
which has attracted many people from the surrounding lowlands to the Mandara Mountains,
hence a high population density. This is because this climate is far more attractive than the
relatively harsh Sudano-Saherian climate of the Far North region.
Fertile Soils: The fertile volcanic soils of the Mandara Mountain and the alluvial soils of the
Diamare and Mayo-Tsanaga plains have attracted a large population for intensive agriculture.
These soils have influenced the development of intensive cereal cultivation (maize, millet, rice,
and groundnut) that support high population densities. The volcanic soils of the Mandara have
also attracted terrace farming where cereal farming is combined with sheep and cattle rearing,
attracting high human agglomerations.
Suitable Relief: The flat relief of the Diamare plains and Mayo-Tsanaga at the foot of Mandara
has attracted a high population density. This is because the flat relief favours the location and
expansion of settlement as well as plantation of cotton, groundnuts and rice which attract a large
population. The level relief has also encouraged the construction of roads which brings the
regions to other places thereby attracting a large population from other areas.

B) Human factors
Historical Factors (Population Migration): In the past, the Mandara Mountains received many
waves of in-migrants in neighboring lowland tribes. The Mandara Mountain was used as a refuge
for lowland tribes such as Mafas and Mofous (Kirdis). These people were escaping from the
Islamic jihads of Usman Dan Fodio in the 18 century. They ran up the Mandara Mountain slopes
because they did not want to be converted to Islam.
Government Influence: Since independence, the Cameroon government has sponsored
infrastructural development projects in the Far North such as transport, health and educational
facilities. This region has tarred roads radiating from Maroua to Mokolo, Yagoua, Garoua and
Kousseri as well as Maroua airport. There are also schools such as wildlife and veterinary
schools, the university and ENS Maroua. There are also hospitals and tourism projects. Also,
these projects have attracted many people from other parts of Cameroon, Nigeria and Chad.
Cultural Factors: The Moslem culture practiced by the people of Mandara Mountains and
Diamare plains polygamous marriages. This has led to high birth rates in the face of rapid drop in
death rates. This resulted to rapid population growth. This zone falls within the Far North which
the second most populated region in Cameroon after the center.
Industrialisation: The presence of industries in Maroua, Kousseri, Kaele and Yagoua has
attracted a high population density. The industries attract many people for employment.
B) AREAS OF SPARSE POPULATION DENSITY
I)THE ADAMAWA PLATEAU: This is an extensive planteau that lies between the Northen
lowlands and Southern low plateau. It has a low population of less than 5 persons per km2. The
Adamawa plateau is inhabited by the normadic Fulani tribes such as the Bororos, Fulbes, Tikars,
Nyem Nyem and Mbum.
Reasons for low population density within the Adamawa Plateau
A) Physical factors

Harsh Climate: The Adamawa plateau is influenced by tropical sudan climate which is
characterised by seasonal changes, high temperatures of about 27 0C and rainfall of less than
15000C. The climate sustains extensive Savannah grassland which attracts extensive nomadism
and transhumance which requires low population density. The high temperature of the region
also discourages many people from living there because it makes many people uncomfortable.
Infertile Soil: The Adamawa plateau is covered by the ferruginous or lateritic soils characterised
by hardpans. These soils do not attract people because they are infertile due to heavy leaching
and soil erosion. The hardpan also hinders tilling, hence small farm sizes and low productivity
which support a sparse population due to limited food supply. The infertile soils cause the
population to tend to extensive cattle rearing which also sustains sparse population.
Rugged Relief: The uplands of the Adamawa are characterised by vast erosion surfaces with
exposed rocks which hinder arable farming, hence less attractive to people. The steep slopes and
accidented relief of this region also hinders agricultural mechanisation, construction of transport
facilities and settlements. In fact, the region is dominated by wasteland that is more reserved for
livestock rearing than crop cultivation. The traditional livestock rearing (pastoral nomadism)
requires scanty population density.
Low Level of socio-economic development: The region is highly lagging due to the scarcity of
roads, railways, schools, hospitals, electricity, pipe-borne water and administrative facilities.
This is due to the dense vegetation, moist soils and high drainage density which make
infrastructural development difficult and expensive. Due to this backwardness, people cannot
move into the region except a few lumbering companies such as SPID in Douala and SOFIBEL
in Belabo.
B) Historical factors
Migration : The Adamawa plateau has been an Islamic raiding zone, where people were forced
to be converted to Islam or sold as slaves. This alone affected many tribes such as Chambas,
Tikars, Betis, Fangs and Wimbums who migrated away causing low densities. It was equally
regarded as a Zone of slave raiding especially during the Pre- colonial period. Many tribes
therefore migrated as a result of slavery and slave trade.
Farming system: The type of farming system within the Adamawa plateau is extensive
livestock rearing which is only carried out in areas of low population density, so that each
herdsmen or grazier has a large surface to keep his animals. They never build permanent
settlement since they are always moving with their cattle especially during the drought. This
contributes to low population densities in the Adamawa plateau.
II) THE SOUTH EASTERN FORESTED REGION OR THE EASTERN PART OF
SOUTH CAMEROON LOW PLATEAU:
This is the region that has the tropical rainforest or equatorial rain forest. It covers the whole
of south eastern portion of Cameroon occupied by the rainforest tribes especially the pigmies or
Baka people. This region has very low population densities and cover Yakadouma, Moloundo,
and Doume.
Reasons for the low Population density within this region

Harsh climate: This area is made up of the Equatorial climate with heavy rains falling all year
round (1500- 2500mm) and high temperatures of about 26°c. This makes the area unconducive
for population concentration.
Poor soils: The soil of this region is the Ferrallitic soils which are heavily leached of their
nutrients due to heavy rainfall. This soil type is not good for agriculture thereby making the
forest dwellers to practice shifting cultivation which is highly carried out in areas of low
population densities.
Prevalence of diseases: The area harbours a great deal of disease- carrying vectors like tsé tsé
flies and mosquitoes. Parts of the area like the Lom, Djerem, Nyong valleys, Dja, Bouba-, and
Ngoko are marshy. The prevalence of diseases and the marshy nature of the area make it
inhabitable.
Poor transport network: The southern/ eastern section of the south low plateau is lagging in
terms of transport network development such as roads and railways. This makes the movement
of people and goods difficult, hence low population density.
Low socio-economic development: The southern/ Eastern section of the South Cameroon low
plateau is lagging in terms of infrastructural development and social facilities such as roads,
Industries, High institutions, hospitals, pipe borne water. This is a blow to human settlement
hence low population concentration.
Cultural factor: The pigmies, Baka, and the Batouri people are traditional hunters, fishermen
and are adapted to the harsh hostile environment. They cannot live in environments that do not
support their usual economic activity (slash and burn), thus prefer isolated sparse environments.
B) MIGRATION IN CAMEROON

Cameroon experiences both internal and international migration.

Internal Migration in Cameroon

The types of internal migration in Cameroon include rural exodus, inter-regional

migration, inter-urban migration, intra-urban migration, urban-rural migration and the
movement of pastoralists.
A) RURAL- URBAN MIGRATION: It is the movement of people from the rural
areas(Villages) into towns and cities. It is however a common form of migration which is
believed to be greatly responsible for the explosion of urban population.
Causes of rural-urban migration
I) push factors
Lack of or limited social amenities or rural deprivation: Most rural areas in Cameroon lack
social facilities such as electricity, pipe borne water, higher institution of learning, good medical
facilities. This has often pushed the people out of the rural areas into the towns such as Douala,
Yaounde, Bamenda etc where these amenities exist.
Rural poverty: Cameroon's rural landscape is industrially poor leading to unemployment
thereby forcing people out of the villages into towns and cities.
Repugnant tradition and customs: Many people move out of rural areas into towns because of
repugnant tradition and customs such as forceful marriages, female genital circumcision and
witchcraft. For example, in most villages of North Cameroon, early marriages and the practice of
female genital mutilation, has often forced young girls out to the surrounding towns and cities.
Epidemic diseases: Epidemic diseases such as cholera, meningitis etc often generate a wave of
out- migration into surrounding towns and cities. For example, the meningitis epidemics that
affected some villages in fontem subdivision in the year 2000 forced people out to towns such as
Dschang, Douala, Yaounde etc.
Natural disasters and wars: Wars/ tribal conflicts and repeated episodes of famine and floods
in certain rural areas have sent out waves of rural migrants into the surrounding towns. Repeated
episodes of famine, floods and landslides in certain rural areas of the South West, North of
Cameroon like the Logone basin have forced waves of rural migrants into the surrounding towns
of Dschang, Maroua and Garoua.
Demographic evolution: Thickly populated rural areas with high birth rate causes stress on the
agricultural land thereby forcing the rural population to migrate to towns and cities. For example,
the high birth rate in the Western highland of Cameroon has caused a lot of stress on the
available resources thereby forcing the rural population to the surrounding towns
Recent changes in agriculture: Increase mechanization in agriculture in rural areas has led to a
fall in demand for labourers. The introduction of plantation agriculture in the South west
(C.D.C), Centre (sugar cane field at Mbandjock and the cotton plantations in the north have led
to out migration of farmers who lost their agricultural land.
b) Pull factors
Availability of better social facilities: urban areas such as Douala, Yaounde, Bafoussam,
Bamenda etc poses basic amenities such as electricity, pipe borne water, health care units thereby
attracting rural migrants.
Availability of job opportunities: The urban areas of Cameroon such as Douala, Yaounde,
Bamenda etc offer many job opportunities which attract many rural migrants.
Better security guarantees: Towns and cities offer better security guarantees by virtue of the
presence of law enforcement officers. This attract migrants suffering from persecution in the
rural areas.
Availability of higher institutions: Urban areas are made of higher institutions of learning such
as universities which pull many migrants from the rural areas.
Consequences of rural-urban migration
a) Consequences at the departure areas (in the villages)
Fall in Active labour force: Rural-urban migration result to a fall in active labour force and a
drop in agricultural output.
Higher dependency in the rural areas: The out movement of the youthful population leads to
the greater proportion of the young and the old.
Fall in birth rate: Rural-urban migration leads to falling birth rate due to the fact that most
active/ reproductive males have migrated.
Lost of family cohesion: Rural exodus leads to separation of families in the rural areas.
Underutilization of social infrastructure: Declining social infrastructure due to under
utilization.
Reduction in population pressure: It reduces population pressure on the cultivable land, hence
the remaining farmers have greater access to farmland.
Improvement in rural housing/ standard of living: Remittance sent to the rural areas by those
who have moved to the urban areas help to build the rural areas.
b) Consequences on the receiving areas (in towns a d cities)
A) Shortages of houses and consequently increase in house rent.
B) High rate of congestion in streets and houses leading to the development of slums and
ghettos.
C) Increase in the rate of unemployment due to increase in population.
D) Increase in the rate of pollution due to difficulties in collecting garbage.
E) Increase in crime wave in cities and towns especially by those who cannot get
employment.
F) Shortage in water supply, health facilities, electricity etc.
Measures to limit or curb Rural- urban migration
 Improvement in living conditions by providing amenities such as pipe borne water,
electricity, and hospitals in rural areas.
 Encouragement of rural development projects such as the setting up of industries,
construction of roads, Bridges and the setting up of agricultural projects.
 Improvement in agriculture through the provision of farming inputs such as fertilizers,
pesticides/ insecticides.
 Bringing administration nearer to the people of the rural areas by creating administrative
services. Many rural areas of Cameroon are now made up of subdivisional offices, police,
germdamarie and many other basic administrative services thanks to the state's policy of "
taking administration closer to the people".
 Improvement of farm to market roads to ease the movement of people, agricultural
products and to get supplies from towns and cities.
B. Inter-Regional Migration
These are movements of migrants from socio-economic depressed regions (regions of low
economic opportunities) to more prosperous regions (regions of better opportunities). In
Cameroon such movements are usually from major highlands such as the Western Highlands and
Adamawa plateau into lowlands such as Northern lowlands, Coastal lowlands and South
Cameroon low plateau. These movements are often undertaken by farmers, students, jobless
people and traders.
Factors influencing inter-regional migration in Cameroon

Both push and pull factors (either physical or human) have triggered inter-regional
migration in Cameroon. Many people have been migrating mainly from the major highland
regions into neighbouring lowlands since independence due to the following factors
High fertility rates: This has caused more rapid population growth rates (greater than 2.7%) in
some regions of the Western highlands and Mandara Mountain. Overpopulation in some
Bamileke region results in landlessness, small farm holdings and lower farm yields. This has
caused poverty and out-migration to other regions in search of greener pastures.
Poor agricultural output: On the Western highlands ageing cash crop plantations especially
Arabic coffee, depletion of soil fertility and reduced fertilizer used since 1985 due to high cost,
inaccessibility in some remote zones that has caused pre and post-harvest problems thereby
reducing agricultural productivity. All these problems have established conditions that propel
people to move out to the South and Eastern regions. On the Mandara Mountain, these eroded
soils and increase drought incidences have established poor harvest due to crop failure, and
livestock mortality. These conditions have caused out-migration to the South.
Socio-Cultural reasons: The search for liberty from the relatively rigid Islamic culture of North
Cameroon (with more restrictions on lifestyles), forces pagan Kirdi populations to migrate to the
Southern Christian dominated region which is more liberal. The limited socio-economic
infrastructure of the overpopulated Western highlands and Mandara Mountain compared to the
Coastal lowlands and yaounde regions also cause out-migration.
A Weak Economic Base: The departure areas have fewer roads, schools, hospital, pipe-borne
water and very scanty manufacturing industries compared to the destination zones. Therefore,
populations massively migrate from the highland (western high plateau, Mandara Mountain,
Yaounde on the Southern low plateau.
Employment Opportunities: The industrial regions of the Coastal lowlands (Douala,
Mbandjock, Mbalmayo), offer lots of job opportunities. Douala alone has 70% of Cameroon’s
manufacturing industries. Industrial types such as food processing, wood works, chemicals,
textiles, metallurgical in these areas need much unskilled and semi-skilled labour. They have
thus attracted populations nationwide especially from the overpopulated highlands.
Market Potentials: The high population concentration at the Coast (Douala, Limbe, Kumba,
Tiko, Kribi) and Yaounde areas offer wide market that attracts mainly Bamileke businessmen.
Some of them trade in agricultural and other primary products while some sell manufactured
products.
Transport improvements: Since independence, the government has improved on the transport
network linking different regions of the country. The Trans-Cameroon railway line links
Yaounde to Ngoundere, and Douala to Edea, Eseke and Mbalmayo and Douala to Mbanga-
Nkongsamba and Kumba. Tarred road connect the Coastal lowlands (Limbe-Douala Edea-Kribi)
and the center region (Bafia-Yaounde-Mbalmayo) to the Wester highlands (Bamenda-
Bafoussam). The main inter-regional migration waves closely follow these transport axes.
Availability of Vast Lands and Resources: During the colonial and immediate post-
independence periods, there exist vast unoccupied lands at the Coastal low lands and Western
parts of the Southern plateau. These had resources such as forest, fertile soils and minerals.
These have always attracted the hard working grass landers (Metas, Bamilekes, Tikaris, etc) to
the Coast and Yaounde regions exploit these idle resources.
State Investments: State sponsored project have also cause inter-regional migration in
Cameroon. For instance, rural development schemes such as (SODECOTTON, SEMRY,
NORTH-EAST Benue project, Lagdo dam irrigation schemes have caused regional migration
from the Mandara Mountains to the Diamare, Benue and Logone lowlands. The concentration of
public utilities such as schools/universities, hospitals, HEP, supplies in the southern half of the
country has pulled thousands of people towards such as Douala, Yaounde, Limbe, Buea,
Dschang, Edea, etc.

Consequences of inter-regional migration

The movement of population across regions in Cameroon has produced the following effects:
Demographic Consequences: This movement has introduced great contrasts in population
numbers across the region. Very high population figures and densities exist in the receiving areas
as Douala and Yaounde with over 200 persons per km2. While low population figures and
number exist in some source regions as Njikwa-Ngie, Furu-Awa in the Western highlands.
Changes have also occurred in the age/sex structure of population in the departure and
destination areas. The 1976 population census results showed an imbalanced population sex ratio
in the coastal part of the Southwest region of 109 males to 100 females while the entire of the
Northwest region had 94 males to 100 females. This imbalance results from mass migration of
young male adults from the Bamenda highlands to the Coastal plantations and industrials zones.
The tide of this movement has not stopped today. Thus, the imbalance remains and risk being
exaggerated.
Economic consequences: This movement has caused economic development rates to vary
between the Coastal and hinterland regions. Coastal towns such as Douala, Limbe, Tiko, Buea,
Kumba, Kribi, and Edea have tended to grow faster than hinterland areas like Wum, Nkambe,
and Kumbo, etc. Most inter-regional migrants invest more in the Coastal region than in their
hinterland, though their remittance help in no small way to uplift the general fabric appearance of
their source regions.
Social Consequences: Inter-regional movements mix populations of the grassland and forest
regions that have different cultural heritage. Intertribal marriages blend their cultural (in terms of
feeding habits, language and dressing style) hence the bonding of Cameroon’s regions. However,
social ills like the alien-indigenous phenomenon or what became popularly called the “come-no-
go” which emerged in the Southwest region during the early 1990s with the reintroduction of
multipartism in Cameroon had its roots in inter-regional migration.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL IN CAMEROON
 Cameroon is largely is yet to arrive stage four of the Demographic Transition model. It is
characterized demographically by high birth rate and rapidly declining death rate. The
demographic, Socio-economic and political characteristics of Cameroon shows that the country
is largely in the second stage and has evolved into the early part of stage three as seen below.

The demographic characteristics of Cameroon that shows that the country is still in stage
two is high birth rate, declining death rate leading to high population growth.
The socio-economic characteristic of Cameroon are improvement in medical facilities,
improvement in hygiene and sanitation, gradual increase in per Capita income and living
standards, improvement in transport, improvement in agriculture, provision of social
amenities.
The socio-economic characteristic of Cameroon which shows that the country is I'm the
early stage of stage three are improving of medical facilities, slightly increase in life
expectancy, implementation of birth control measures, rise in the status of women, rise in
literacy level etc.
POSSIBLE MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS ON POPULATION GEOGRAPHY
1)The total number of people living in a particular area at a given time best describes?
A) Human race. (B) People. (C) Demographic structure. (D) Population
2) It is a source of population data.
A) Population density. (B) Population. (C) Population census. (D) Ecumen
3) The official per head count of the population of a given county at a particular time is
A) Population census. (B) Population density (C) Population Study. (D) Sampling
4) The following are sources of population data except one. Isolate the exception.
A) Sample frame. (B) Census. (C) Sample surveys. (D) Vital registration
5) Which of the following combinations of factors help most to inflt population distribution on
the earth's surface?
A) Health factors, climate, relief, vegetation. (B) Climate, soils, relief, drainage
C) Relief, climate, vegetation, density. (D) Relief, market, soils, labour
6) Which of the following depicts the rate at which Malthus said food supplies increase Vis-à-vis
population increase?
A)1,2,4,6,8. (B) 1,2,3,4,5. (C) 1,2,4,8,16. (D) 1,2,8,16,32
7) The process of enumeration, compiling and publishing of data on population is known as?
A) Population count.(B) Data collection. (C) Population census. (D) Vital registration
8) All of the following pairs are regions of high population densities in the world except one.
Which is the odd pair?
A) NE Europe and SE Asia. (B) Central Brazil and North America
C) SE Asia and NE USA. (D) The Nile valley and SE Asia
9) Which of the following is not a method of measuring Population density?
A) Crude density. (B) Nutritional density. (C) Room density. (D) Migration
10) Which of the following pairs constitute outputs in population system?
A) Birth and emigrants. (B) Death and emigrants.
(C) Birth and Immigrants. (D) Death and Immigrants
11) A Census approach where people are counted where they are found at the time of the census
is called?
A) Defacto approach. (B) Dejury approach. (C) Dejure method. (D) Census
12) All the following are static methods of data collection except one. Which is the exception.
A) Census. (B) Sample surveys (C)Vital registration (D) Population commission
13) Which of the following best describes the regular daily movement of people from their
residences to their work places and back?
A) Refugeism. (B) Commuting. (C) Periodic movement. (D) Daily circulation
14) Zero population growth is a characteristic of which stage of the Demographic Transitional
Model?
A) Stage 4. (B) Stage 2. (C) Stage 1. (D) Stage.5
15) The rate at which population density declines away from a centre of concentrt best
describes?
A) Population density. (B) Lorenz curve
C) Population lapse rate. (D) Decreasing lapse rate
16)" Necessity is the mother of invention". Which of the following authors idea is this?
A)[Link] Malthus. (B) Esther Buserup. (C) Von Thunen. (D) Adam Smith
17) According to Esther Buserup's theory of the relationship between Population and resources,
necissityy is the mother of invention. This means that.
A) A drop in population will increase production
B) An incret in population will lead to a drop in population.
C) A drop in population will lead to a drop in production
D) An increase in population will stimulate production.
18) Which of the following is not a major factor of forced migration?
A) Wars. (B) Unemployment. (C) Drought. (D). Religious intolerance
19) Rural - urban migration is also referred to as?
A) Counter migration. (B) Rural-rural migration. (C) Rural Exodus. (D) Commuting
20) All the following are positive checks to population growth given by Malthus except one.
Isolate the exception.
A) Disease. (B) Abstinence. (C) War. (D) Natural disasters
21)If the surface area of a place is 475000km2 and its total population is 16,000,000. What is the
population density of the area?
A) 34 persons per Km2. (B) 0.03 persons per km2
C) 0.34 persons per km2. (D)0.3 persons per Km2
22) The number of babies who die before the age of one in a year expressed as a thousand of the
number of live birth of a country's Population best describes.
A)Death rate. (B) Mortality rate. (C) Infant mortality rate. (D) Life expectancy
23) The Demographic Transitional Model today has how many stages?
A) 5. (B) 1. (C) 4. (D) 5
24) The following processes cause a change in population except one. Isolate the exception.
A) Birth. (B) Growth rate. (C) Death rate. (D) Migration
26) Counting done during census is carried out by specially trained people called?
A) Enumerators. (B) Enumeration. (C) Census people. (D) Trained personnel
27)The manner at which people are spread out across the surface of the earth best describes
A) Population census. (B) Population density.
(C) Population distribution. (D) Population growth
28) The following are cartographic methods used in representing and mapping Population
density except one. Isolate the exception.
A) Chloropleth maps. (B) Lorenz curve. (C) Dot maps. (D) Isopleth maps
29)A Population with a large number of youths and a decreasing number of the aged is referred
to as
A) Ageing population (B) Youthful population.
(C) Increasing population. (D) Decreasing population
30) It is a non demographic factor influencing the shape of an age- sex pyramid.
A) Migration. (B) Birth rate. (C) Death rate. (D) War
31) Which stage of the Demographic Transition Model is characterized demographically by high
birth rate and declining death rate?
A) Stage 1. (B) Stage 2. (C) Stage 3. (D) Stage 4
32) The tendency for certain elements of the population to be more migratory than the other best
describes.
A) Migration. (B) Forced migration. (C) Marital status. (D) Migration differentials
33) The following are all factors influencing Spatial interaction. Isolate the one that is not a
major determinant factor postulated by Edward Ullman.
A) Distance. (B) Complimentarily. (C) Intervening opportunities. (D) Transferability
34) Full employment, high average standard of living, high purchasing power high exchange
rates are all characteristics of.
A)Under population(B)Over population.(C)Optimum population.(D) Population growth
35) The maximum potential number of people that the resoy of a particular area or environment
can support best describes.
A) Carrying capacity. (B) Overshoot.(C) Population problem.(D)Population growth
36) All the following are preventive checks of Malthus except one. Isolate the exception.
A) Abstinence. (B) Famine. (C) Late marriages. (D) Celebacy
37) Platini went to secondary school in Nwametaw village, but he is ambitious such that he will
have a better chance of getting a good job and enjoying life. He moves to Yaounde city. The type
of migration involved is.
A) Urban- Rural (B) Rural- rural. (C) Urban- urban. (D) Rural-urban
38) The type of age-sex pyramid that corresponds to the structure of Cameroon's population is?
A) The regressive type. (B) The progressive type.
C) The intermediate types. (D) The stationary type
39) Cameroon's population in 2015 was estimated at 23.5 million and its annual growth rate was
2% How long would it take this population to double itself and in which year?
A) 35 years in the year 2050 (B) 33.3 years in the year 2047
C) 34 years in the year 2049. (D) 36 years in the year 2051
40) Population distribution in Cameroon is uneven. Identify the pair of densely populated areas
in Cameroon.
A) Adamawa plateau and Western Highlands.
(B) Western Highlands and Eastern section of the coastal lowland
C) The south-eastern section of the south Cameroon low plateau and the Western Highlands
D) The Western section of the south Cameroon low plateau and the Western part of the coastal
lowland ( Mamfe and Ndian Depression)
PAST GCE PAPER TWO QUESTIONS ON POPULATION GEOGRAPHY FROM 2015
GCE JUNE 2015
a) What do you understand by the population problem (8mk)
b) How can agriculture be improved to solve the population problem? (15mks)
PROPOSED ANSWER GUIDE
a) See page ????? for details on population problem
b) Agriculture can be intensified by improving upon the existing cultivable land through greater
use of natural manure and artificial fertilizers to enrich the soil, pesticides and insecticides to
eradicate pest and diseases and herbicides to eliminate dangerous weeds.
Agriculture can still be intensified through the use of agricultural machinery like tractors,
ploughs, milking, machines, and combine harvesters.
Moreso, the existing cultivable land can be improved upon through hybridisation, cross
breeding and the discovery of new species of crops that are fast maturing and disease resistant
such as the miracle rice with three harvest periods.
 Further more, agriculture can still be improved through extensificaction or the opening of
new land. More land can be reclaimed from waste, flooded or derelict land. This has been
effective in Denmark and Holland. Flooded lands in these countries have been made cultivable
through land drainage leading to increase in agricultural output.
Moreso, through irrigation and deforestation. Some desert, dry Sahel regions have been
made cultivable through irrigation. In the dense Amazon and Congo basin and other forest
regions of the world, vast areas have been deforested for the cultivation of tropical crops.
Apart from the intensification and extensificaction of agriculture to provide food for the
growing population, other measures such as industrialization, migration, creation of more space
and measures to limit growth can be used to solve population problem
Industrial expansion will help solve population problem because Industries will serve as
employment opportunities where jobs will be created as well as the exportation of industrial
products which will provide a source of foreign exchange earnings.
Moreso, Migration should be encouraged especially in countries suffering from
overpopulation so as to reduced pressure on the existing land. This has been effective in China.
Moreover, more space can be created to accommodate the exploding population through
vertical construction of houses. Many storey buildings and skyscrapers should be constructed to
accommodate thousands of people so as to solve the social problem of housing.
Further more, birth control measures such as the use of contraceptives, family planning, late
marriages, abstinence, legalisation of abortion, sterilisation/ vasectomy, wars, diseases, flood can
be used to limit population growth.
GCE JUNE 2016
" physical factors are essentially responsible for major trends of inter-regional migration".
To what extent is this statement true.
PROPOSED MARKING GUIDE
Inter-regional migration refers to the movement of people from one region to another. It
could be the movement of people within the same country (internal) or between countries
(international). It could still be voluntary in case where the migrant decided to move or
involuntary in the case where the migrant is forced to move. Inter-regional migration is of two
types namely colonising migration and general drifts of population.
Colonising inter-regional migration is the movement of people spontaneously or planned
into areas that have not been inhabited for long but provide good conditions for human
habitation. e.g the movement of people into the Eastern province of Cameroon after
independence.
General drifts of population on the other hand, is the movement of people from economic
backward areas to economic advanced areas. e.g the drift of people from Midwest of USA to the
California industrial regions. In Cameroon we have the drifts from Far North and Adamawa to
towns of the centre and littoral regions (North to South movements)
b) Physical push and pull factors at the origin and destination respectively are highly responsible
for the major trends of inter-regional migration. The physical push factors are harsh climate,
difficult or rugged relief, poor soils and natural disasters while the pull physical factors are good
climate, good relief, fertile soils and absence of natural disasters.
Harsh climatic regions with much cold or excessive heat (drought) makes human
habitation difficult. People are therefore forced to move out of such areas. e.g The movement of
people from the Far north of Russia to the south. On the other hand, areas with good climate like
the south of Russia, South coast of England and the coastal region of Cameroon attract migrants
from other harsh climatic regions.
The movement of people out of a region is also triggered by rugged relief. Areas with
rugged relief such as the Adamawa region makes human activities such as agriculture,
construction of roads difficult thereby forcing people out of the region down south (coastal,
centre) where the relief is good favouring human activities.
Moreover, poor soils also push people out of a region. The poor soils of the Adamawa
Highlands of Cameroon and most Sahel regions have pushed people out of these regions to areas
such as the coastal lowlands of Cameroon with fertile soils.
Another physical push factor of inter-regional migration is natural disasters (hazards).
Areas frequently hit by natural disasters such as drought (Sahel countries) earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, floods repel haman habitation. People are forced to move from such areas to areas that
are free from natural hazards.
Though physical factors are essentially responsible for major trends of inter-regional
migration, other factors such as economic, social, religious and political both push and pull are
also important.
Economic push and pull factors cause the movement of people from one region to
another. People move from regions of declining economic importance to regions of booming
economic growth. The economic push factors at origin include unemployment, poor prospects in
agriculture and industry, low incomes, relatively high cost of land, high cost of living, poverty
and misery. e.g the movement of people out of the Adamawa Highlands. On the other hand, the
availability of employment opportunities, higher incomes/ wages, better prospects in agriculture
and industry, Lower cost of living and higher living standards attract migrants.e.g the movement
of people from the Adamawa Highlands of Cameroon to the coastal lowlands.
Social factors are also responsible for the major trends of inter-regional migration. Limited
social services and amenities in the area of departure such as schools, hospitals, pipp borne
water, electricity and housing facilities cause outmigration whereas the availability of these
activities in the receiving areas are attractive to migrants and thus encourage movements into
such areas. e.g The movement of people from North of Britain to the south.
Moreso, religious persecution or intolerance and conflicts in the departure area often force
the religious group concern to move out of the region. On the other hand, religious freedom or
tolerance will act as a pull factor and would encourage or attract migrants into such areas.
In addition, political push and pull factors also trigger the movement of people from one
region to another. Political push factors are oppressive government policy, poor governance and
regressive government policy. On the other hand, the existence of good governance, peace and
freedom will attract migrants.
Conclusively, the trends of inter-regional migration is essentially because of physical or
environmental factors (climate, relief, soil natural disasters) but other economic, social, religious
and political factors are also important.
GCE JUNE 2017
a) Why has the global population witnessed a dramatic increase in ageing population
during the last decades? (10 mks)
b) Discuss the various socio-economic implications of such rapid ageing (15mks)
PROPOSED ANSWER GUIDE.
a) An ageing population otherwise known as greying population is a Population with a greater
proportion of aged persons and a smaller proportion of young persons or a population where
there is an increasing number of the aged and a decreasing number of the young. Ageing
population is a characteristic of More Economically Developed Countries such as Britain, Japan,
USA, Germany, Belgium, Sweden and other European countries.
The ageing population is made up of two types namely ageing or greying at the apex which
occurs when there is an increasing proportion of the aged or large proportion of old people in a
population. On the other hand, ageing at the base occurs when there is decreasing proportion of
the young or when there is a smaller proportion of young people in a population.
The dramatic increase in ageing population during the last decades can be accounted by two
main reasons. These two reasons are fall in death (mortality) rate which result to ageing
population at the top and decline in birth (Fertility) rate which result to ageing population at
the base.
Mortality rate has fallen due to improvement in medical facilities and care. There has been
improvement in health facilities and care prolonging life leading to greying population.
Another reason for a drastic fall in mortality is improvement in sanitary or
environmental conditions. Better sanitary conditions permit people to live the ages well above
65 years.
 Moreover, better catering facilities have also increased the ageing population. Better
catering facilities especially in old homes created by most governments have resulted to high life
expectancy leading to ageing.
In addition, high level of economic development has also contributed to a fall in death rate.
High level of economic growth leading to better nutrition/ diet guarantees long live expectancy.
On the other hand, birth rate has reduced due to the following reasons.
Strict implementation of birth control measures. The strict implementation of birth
control measures in Japan and most European countries has made fertility to fall leading to
ageing population.
Moreso, greater women emancipation with a good number of working class women result
in low fertility rate leading to a drastic increase in ageing population.
Further more, birth has significantly fallen as a result of the desire to maintain high
standards of living. The desire for high living standards has resulted to couples delivering few
children so as to spend most of their time on leisure thus increasing the number of old people in a
population.
In addition to the above mentioned points, birth rate has reduced due to late marriages.
Late marriages result to a reduction of the number of people getting married and finally a
reduction in birth rate.
b) The rapid ageing population produces socio-economic implications which may be positive or
negative. The socio-economic implications will be explained in the paragraphs below.(See
page ??????)
GCE JUNE 2018
a) Distinguish between over population and carrying capacity (8mks)
b) How can population policies be used to combat high population growth rates (8mks)
C) Explain the factors that trigger force migration today (9mks)
PROPOSED ANSWER GUIDE
a) Over population is a situation where there is an excess of population over potential and
utilised resources. It may result from increase in population, decline in the demand for labour,
decline in available resources. Some examples of countries experiencing over population are
Bangladesh, Ethiopia, part of China, Brazil and India. There are two types of over population
namely absolute over population and relative over population.
On the other hand, carrying capacity refers to the maximum potential number of people
that the resources of a particular area or environment can support or the level at which existing
resources can sustain the expanding population. It was introduced by Malthus in the Concept of
ceiling which is a level where the environment is saturated such that the population just equals
the carrying capacity of the environment. Beyond the ceiling, the environment will be unable to
support the extra number of people. As the population grows towards the carrying capacity, it
undergoes various adjustments such as the instantaneous adjustment, Progressive or gradual
adjustment, and progressive approximation adjustment.
b) Population policies are sets of measures taken by a state to modify the way it population is
changing, either by promoting large families or immigration to increase its size or by
encouraging limitation of births to decrease it. The population policies used to combat high
population growth rates can be preventive and corrective as explained below.
One of the preventive measures is abstinence. This preventive measure requires staying off
from any sexual activity for a period of time which may be determined by the age and
responsibility of marriage or just controlling and limiting the family size.
Moreso, celibacy and chastity is another Population policy used to combat high population
growth rate. Celibacy is the decision of not getting married and having no sexual relationship
while chastity is s state of not having sex with anyone until the responsibilities of marriage could
be accepted.
Moreover, later or delayed marriage can also be used as a preventive measure to reduce
population growth. Delayed marriages reduce the productive period of individuals especially for
women and consequently the number of children. In Japan for example the Samurai were not
allowed to marry before the age of thirty years.
Another preventive measure is the implementation of comprehensive and high quality
family planning programs. This is through the use of various birth control measures so as to
limit the size of the family by reducing births. This has been very successful in China, Japan and
Singapore.
Further more, birth rate or fertility can be reduced through sterilisation and preventing
conception. Preventing conception through the use of contraceptives such as condoms, pills,
spermicidal cream, diaphragm and sterilisation for both males and females has been very
instrumental in reducing birth rate.
Another Population policy used to combat high population growth rate is abortion and
infanticide. Abortion is a corrective measure involving the elimination of the foetus before
birth. It has been legalised in most MEDCs and LCDCs. On the other hand, infanticide involves
the killing of unwanted children after birth. These corrective measures have contributed greatly
in reducing birth rate.
Other corrective measures used to combat population growth rate are improvement in
education, Improvement in health care, polygamous marriages, minimum length of
suckling period and government policy
C) Forced migration or involuntary movement today is triggered by push factors. These are those
reasons which force people to leave an area or conditions that make people dissatisfied with their
area.
Forced migration is triggered by a difficult physical environment. Areas with harsh
climate, poor soils and rugged relief are not favourable for human habitation. Such areas repel
population and trigger out migration. e.g the Rockies Mountain of North America.
Another factor that triggers forced migration today is religious persecution or intolerance.
Many people have migrated in history to excape from religious persecution. This aspect was
responsible for the emigration of the Pilgrim Fathers in the 1620 from Britain to North America.
Forced migration can also be triggered by wars. Wars have been responsible for massive
movements across borders into other countries in the past and present. During civil wars like
those that have occurred in Central African Republic, South Sudan, Rwanda and Burundi, many
people escaped to other countries for safety.
Moreso, political persecution also triggered forced migration. People in many countries of
Africa have escaped to other countries because they disagreed with the political regime in place
or opposed to the ideas of the government in power. e.g The Rwandan Genocide led to the
elimination of over 800,000 people of the minority group. After the presidential elections of
1992, in Cameroon, many politicians left the country.
Further more, forced migration is triggered by over population. Over population often
results to unemployment, famine, food shortages, poverty and hardship. This makes people to
move from over populated areas to other areas. e.g Over population in countries such as China,
India, Bangladesh has contributed to high rate of emmigration.
Another push factor that is responsible for forced migration today is famine. Famine
stricken regions such as the Sahel regions of Africa have often witneesd vast movement of
people to other regions where food is available. For example, the vast movement of people from
Ethiopia to Sudan in the 1970s in search of food.
Moreover, forced migration is also triggered by natural disasters. Natural disasters such as
volcanic eruption, earthquakes, floods and landslides have forced people to move out of an area.
In addition to the above mentioned points, forced migration is also triggered by the
economic backwardness of an area. Areas characterised by low level of Industrial development,
poor transport development, mass unemployment, poverty, low incomes and standards of living
have contributed to the movement of people out of such areas. Many people are forced to move
from LEDCs to MEDCs because of the deplorable and hopeless economic situation in most
LEDCs.
GCE JUNE 2019
a) Briefly explain the term Population pyramid (5 mks)
b) Account for the global disparities in fertility rates (10 mks)
C) Assess the relevance of the Demographic Transition Model (10mks).
a) Age sex pyramid otherwise known as Population pyramid is a graphical technique used to
show the age and sex structure of a Population with the vertical axis representing the age groups
and the horizontal axis depicting the percentage or number of two sexes. The males are shown on
the left and the females on the right side of the pyramid. In constructing the age-old sex pyramid,
the vertical axis is graduated in years or group of years (Cohorts) with zero (0) at the base. The
younger age groups are represented at the bottom and the older age group at the top. The
horizontal axis shows either absolute numbers or the percentages of males and females within the
age groups.
There are four different types of Population pyramids namely the progressive, regressive,
stationary and intermediate. The age-sex pyramid is influenced by migration, marital behaviour,
war, famine, Population policies, improved medical services, economic depression, natural
disasters, epidemics, fertility and mortality.
b) Fertility refers to the occurrence of live births or the level of childbearing in an individual, but
more often in a society or nation. Fertility rate on the other hand refers to the average number of
children born to women during their reproductive years. The factors accounting for global
disparities in fertility rate are demographic structure, level of mortality, education, government
policies, and nature of diet, race, health, religious prescription, custom and tradition. These
factors explain why rates remain persistently high in some parts of the developing world but are
declining in others and why they remain very low in developed countries.
One of the factors influencing or accounting for global disparities in fertility rate is the
demographic structure. Less economically developed countries are made up of youthful
Population, thus more people in child bearing ages leading to high fertility rate. On the other
hand, more economically developed countries are made up of ageing population leading to low
fertility rate. Fertility rate is further high in regions where women dorminate than areas with
scarcity of women.
Another factor is the difference in the age at which people get married across the world.
Early marriages are a characteristic of LEDCs and leading to high fertility rate. In NICs and
MEDCs people get married late leading to low fertility rate.
The level of education or differences in the level of attainment of education across the
world is another factor accounting for global disparities in fertility rate. The level of illiteracy in
less economically developed countries is high leading to high Fertility rate because the
Population is ignorance about birth control measures. Conversely, in More economically
developed countries, the level of literacy is high leading to low fertility rate.
Moreover, religious prescription or differences in the access and effective use of birth
control measures across the world also accounts for global disparities in fertility rate. Muslim
and Catholic countries are generally opposed to any form of contraception. This explain why
there is high Fertility rate in countries such as Italy, Ireland, Latin America, Chad with strong
Catholic and Muslim beliefs than Protestant countries.
Moreso, global disparities in fertility rate can be accounted for by differences in social/
traditional customs. Muslim countries accept polygamy resulting to high fertility rate. Also in
most Asian countries early marriages dorminate, fertility rate is high. Conversely, in places
where monogamy is the main practise and late marriages dorminate as in most developed
countries, fertility rates are low.
Furthermore, global disparities in fertility rate can also be influenced by the nature of diets.
High fertility rate are characteristics of the poorest and most seriously under-nourished people of
the world who heavily consume starchy food like rice, wheat, cassava (Asian countries). On the
other hand, fertility rate is low in developed countries who highly consume protein- rich foods
such as meat, eggs, beans, milk.
Another factor accounting for the global disparities in fertility is health. There is high
fertility rate in regions of the world with poor health, poor hygenic conditions and poor medical
facilities (LEDCs). Fertility rate in these areas is high because parents deliberately have many
children for replacement purposes and also to ensure that some survive to adulthood. On the
other hand, MEDCs with improvement in health conditions have low fertility.
Moreso, race also account for the global disparities in fertility. The white race has the
lowest fertility rates. On the other hand, the black race has the highest fertility rate. Apart from
the widely separated examples, racial groups living side-by-side and sharing the same natural
conditions also show differences in birth rate.
In addition to the above mentioned points, differences in the level of women emancipation
across the world also contribute greatly to global disparity in fertility rate. There is low level of
women emancipation in LEDCs leading to high fertility rate. On the contrary, in most NICs and
MEDCs women emancipation is high with a good number of working class women leading to
low fertility rate.
C) The Demographic Transition Model (DYM) refers to or describes a sequence of changes
over a period of time in the relationship between birth and death rates and the overall Population
change. These changes occur as a nation progresses from a rural, agrarian and illiterate state to a
predominantly urban, industrial and literate one. It is made up of four stages but a fifth stage is
eminent and it is clearly advanced by John I. Clarke. The stages of the DTM are high stationary
or primitive phase, early expanding phase, late expanding phase, low stationary or fluctuating
phase and the low and declining phase.
(See page ?????? for the usefulness and weaknesses of the DTM
GCE JUNE 2020
a) Explain the term Population problem and under Population (7mks)
b) Explain two reasons in each case why the following areas do not attract Population
concentration.
I) High relief regions (ii) Hot desert (9mks)
C) Briefly discuss three factors influencing the shape of the Population pyramid (9mks)
PROPOSED ANSWER GUIDE
a) The term Population problem refers to the rate at which the Population is increasing without a
corresponding increase in the means of subsistence (resources). This Population problem though
not caused by Population growth but by uneven distribution of resources in the world result to a
series of socio-economic and political problems. The socio-economic problems are shortage of
food, poor sanitation, pollution, inadequate social facilities, traffic congestion, mass
unemployment, rise in the cost of living and the political problems are political instabilities
manifested in riots, demonstrations, wars, vandalism, preliferation of political parties and
unstable governments.
Under Population is a situation whereby the Population of a country is too small to utilise
fully its resources. It occurs when there are far more resources than could be used by people
currently living there. Under Population occurs because of better diets, good sanitary and health
care, high educational standards, better knowledge of birth control measures, better social
welfare system and careful of judicious use of the available resources. Some examples of under
populated countries are Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Gabon, and Kuwait. There are two
types of under population namely absolute and relative under Population. An under populated
country is characterised by the presence of vast untapped resources, low per capita income and
low living standards in LEDCs and luxurious average living standards, wasteful usage of
resources, high immigration rate in MEDCs.
b) High relief regions such as the Atlas Mountains, Himalayas, and Rockies Mountains always
repel Population towards them. This can be accounted for by the following.
The presence of steep slopes which are rugged, difficult to access and do not favour
agriculture thereby repelling Population concentration.
High altitudes are climatically harsh. The altitude imposes an ultimate physiological limit
upon human habitation since there is a drastic reduction in atmospheric pressure and oxygen.
Another reason why high relief regions do not attract Population is the inaccessible nature.
Mountainous regions are inaccessible thereby limiting the construction of buildings and
industrial plants.
High relief regions are also also risk zones as they are commonly associated with
environmental catastrophes such as mass movements, earthquakes, Volcanicity.
Furthermore, high relief regions are characterised by thin and infertile soils. These soils are
poor in nutrients due to rapid soil erosion, thereby restricting farming.
 Hot desert areas such as the Sahara Desert, Arabian Desert, Namib Desert, Thar Desert etc
do not attract Population concentration due to their negative influence towards human habitation
as seen below.
Temperatures in the hot desert are generally very high throughout the year with the annual
rainfall being about 32°c. As a result of high temperatures, vegetation and crops suffer from
drought and cannot grow to support human habitation.
Moreso, the hot desert is characterised by irregular and unreliable rainfall. The average
annual amount of rainfall is just about 250mm. This makes agriculture not effective thereby
repelling Population concentration.
In addition, desert soils are too dry with little organic content which makes it difficult for
crops to be cultivated except in the oasis.
C) Population pyramid is the graphical representative of the age and sex structure of a Population
at a give time and place. The factors influencing the shape of the age- sex pyramid are many,
amongst which are the following.(See page ????? for detail explanation of the factors)
GCE JUNE 2021
a) Examine any three ways of measuring population densities (9Mks)
b) Briefly explain two ways by which population movement is selective (7Mks)
C) Discuss two causes and two consequences of demographic explosion (9Mks)
PROPOSED ANSWER GUIDE
Population density refers to the ratio between the population size and a given size area
expressed per kilometer square. The different ways used in measuring population density are
crude density, man/ landuse density, occupational density and room density. (See
page ????? for detail examination of the different ways used in measuring population
density)
b) Population movement or migration is the movement of people from on place to the other.
Those who move out of a country are called emigrants and the process is emigration while those
who move or come into a country are called immigrants and the process is immigration.
Migration selectivity is the ability of group of persons to more migratory over another group
depending on the circumstances. Migration is therefore highly selective in terms of age, sex,
marital status, educational attainment, social status, ethnic groups, race and nationally.(See
page ????? for detail explanation of the points)
C) Population or demographic explosion is the the rapid and dramatic rise in the population of
the world that has occurred over the last few hundred years especially after the Industrial
revolution or the geometric expansion of the biological population of the world. Population
explosion is cauy by high birth rate and falling death rate.
 High birth rate resulting from early marriages, large family size, illiteracy, custom and
tradition especially in LEDCs has contributed greatly to demographic explosion.
Another cause of demographic explosion is falling death rate. Death rate after the
Industrial revolution dropped because of better health care, medical care, and improvement in
transport, cleaner water supply, hygiene and sanitation, better feeding habits. All these have led
to a fall in death rate leading to demographic explosion.
The rapid increase in the population of the planet earth has created serious problems on the
resources. The consequences of demographic explosion are
 Food shortages in many part of the world especially the poor countries leading to
starvation.
 Exhaustion of resources through over exploitation as overfishing, overgrazing, over
cropping and deforestation.
 Overcrowding over space and other infrastructure.
 Environmental degradation as deforestation soil erosion and impoverishment.
 Environmental problems such as pollution
 Much pressure on the available resources leading to unemployment
PAST GEC QUESTIONS ON THE POPULATION GEOGRAPHY OF CAMEROON
GCE JUNE 2015
Q6b) Identify three broad areas of low population densities in Cameroon and the influence of
environmental and human factors
PROPOSED ANSWER GUIDE
Areas or regions in Cameroon with density of between 0-39 persons per km2 are considered
sparsely populated. These areas include the the Adamawa plateau, the South- eastern part of the
south Cameroon low plateau, the Western part of the coastal lowland ( Mamfe and Indian
depression), the western Cameroon- Nigeria border around Fura-awa, the Nkam, Campo and
Mayo Rey areas.(Select any three of the above areas and should how the environmental and
human factors are responsible for the low population)(See page ?????)
GCE JUNE 2016
Q6a) Consider the factors that have led to the large scale migration of the population from the
Western Highlands to the South Cameroon low plateau (16Mks)
PROPOSED ANSWER GUIDE
Migration from the Western Highlands to the Southern Cameroon low plateau is termed as
inter-regional migration. It is oftenly undertaken by farmers, students, jobless propy and traders.
Both push and pull factors (Physical or human) have triggered this movement (See page ??????
for detail explanation of the push and pull factors)
GCE JUNE 2019
Q6bi) Use any three human factors to compare the nature of population distribution on the
western highlands and Adamawa plateau (9Mks)
PROPOSED ANSWER GUIDE
Population distribution is the manner at which people are spread on the surface of the earth.
Population in Cameroon is unevenly distributed. The Western Highland is highly populated
while the Adamawa plateau is sparsely populated. The human factors accounting for this
disparity are nature of road, type of economic activity, level of industrialization, etc( See
page ????)
GCE JUNE 2020
Q6b) Briefly describe and explain two Physical factors responsible for the uneven distribution of
population in Cameroon (12Mks)
PROPOSED ANSWER GUIDE
Population distribution is the manner at which people are spread on the surface of the earth.
Population in Cameroon is unevenly distributed with some places densely populated, moderately
population and some sparsely populated.
The physical factors responsible for uneven distribution of population in Cameroon are
differences in climate, relief diversity, variation in soils, variation in drainage, and biotic
factors ( See page ????? fir detail description and explanation of the factors)
GEC JUNE 2021
Q6b) Examine the consequences of rural- urban migration in Cameroon on the rural areas and
communities (9Mks)
C) Discuss at least three measures which have been undertaken to minimize such movements.
PROPOSED ANSWER GUIDE
Rural urban migration is the movement of people from the rural areas( villages) to towns and
cities. In Cameroon, it involves the movement of people from rural areas such Ndop, Nkambe, to
urban areas such as Yaounde, Douala, Bamenda, etc. It is the most important form of internal
migration in Cameroon. This form of migration has far reaching consequences on the rural areas
and communities ( See page ???? )
C) Many measures have been undertaken over the years by the state to minimize rural- urban
migration (See page ??????)