Chapter 11
The Instructions for
Life: DNA and RNA
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Structure of DNA
Structure of DNA:
Race to determine the structure
Chargaff’s rules
• Knew DNA contains four types of nucleotides
• Examined DNA from many species
• The amount of A, T, G, and C in DNA varies from species to species.
• In each species, the amount of A = T and the amount of G = C.
All nucleotides contain phosphate, a 5-carbon sugar, and a
nitrogen-containing base.
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Figure 11.2a Nucleotide Composition of DNA and RNA
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Figure 11.2 b, c, d Nucleotide Composition of DNA
and RNA
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Franklin’s X-ray diffraction data:
• Rosalind Franklin was studying the structure of DNA.
• Her data showed DNA to be a helix with some portions
repeating over and over.
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The Watson and Crick Model
• 1951—James Watson and
Francis Crick set out to
bring together all the data
on DNA and build a model.
• The model suggested how
replication works.
• Their model holds true
today with few changes.
• Won the Nobel Prize
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DNA Structure
• DNA structure is a double helix, like a twisted ladder.
• Deoxyribose sugar and phosphate molecules are bonded,
forming the sides, with the bases making up the rungs of the
ladder.
• Complementary base pairing of A&T and G&C
• Hydrogen bonding between the bases holds the halves of
the helix together.
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Replication of DNA
Process of copying DNA before cell division
Two strands separate
• Each strand serves as a template for a new strand.
Semiconservative—each new DNA molecule is made of one
parent strand and one new strand.
Replication requires
• Unwinding—helicase
• Complementary base pairing
• Joining—DNA polymerase and DNA ligase
New DNA molecule exactly identical to original molecule
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Semiconservative Replication
• Parent strand unwinds and separates by actions of helicase.
• New strands form through complementary base pairing by
actions of DNA polymerase.
• DNA ligase seals any breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone.
• New DNA molecule will be half old and half new.
• New DNA molecule will be exactly identical to original molecule.
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DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
In eukaryotes, DNA replication begins at numerous origins of
replication.
• Forms “replication bubbles”
• Bubbles spread in both directions until they meet.
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Figure 11.7 Eukaryotic Replication
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RNA Structure and Function
Contains sugar ribose
Uses uracil, not thymine
• Uses A, C, and G like DNA
Single-stranded
Three major types
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
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Figure 11.8 Structure of RNA
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Table 11.1 Comparison of DNA and RNA
SIMILARITIES OF DNA AND RNA
Both are nucleic acids.
Both are composed of nucleotides.
Both have a sugar-phosphate backbone.
Both have four different types of bases.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA
DNA RNA
Found in nucleus Found in nucleus and cytoplasm
Genetic material Helper to DNA
Sugar is deoxyribose. Sugar is ribose.
Bases are A,T,C,G. Bases are A,U,C,G.
Double-stranded Single-stranded
DNA is transcribed (to give a mRNA is translated
variety of RNA molecules). (to make proteins).
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Types of RNA
The three types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Produced in the nucleus from DNA template
• Carries genetic message to ribosomes
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Produced in the nucleus from DNA template
• Transfers amino acids to ribosomes
• Each type carries only one type of amino acid.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Produced in the nucleolus of the nucleus from DNA template
• Joins with proteins to form ribosomes
• Ribosomes may be free or in polyribosomes (clusters) or attached to ER.
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11.2 Gene Expression
Early 1900s, Sir Archibald Garrod suggests a relationship
between inheritance and metabolic diseases.
• First to suggest a link between genes and proteins
DNA provides a blueprint to synthesize proteins.
• Information flows from DNA to RNA to protein.
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Gene expression: Transcription
and Translation
Transcription:
• DNA serves as template to
make mRNA.
Translation:
• mRNA directs sequence of
amino acids in a protein.
• rRNA and tRNA assist
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The Genetic Code
Translates from nucleic acids to amino acids
Triplet—3 nucleotide sequence in DNA
Codon—3 nucleotide sequence in mRNA
• A codon encodes a single amino acid.
• Start and stop codons
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Figure 11.10 Messenger RNA Codons
Second base U Second base C Second base A Second base G
First base U UUU phenylalanine (Phe) UCU serine (Ser) UAU tyrosine (Tyr) UGU cysteine (Cys) Third base U
First base U UUC phenylalanine (Phe) UCC serine (Ser) UAC tyrosine (Tyr) UGC cysteine (Cys) Third base C
First base U UUA leucine (Leu) UCA serine (Ser) UAA stop UGA stop Third base A
First base U UUG leucine (Leu) UCG serine (Ser) UAG stop UGG tryptophan (Trp) Third base G
First base C CUU leucine (Leu) CCU proline (Pro) CAU histidine (His) CGU arginine (Arg) Third base U
First base C CUC leucine (Leu) CCC proline (Pro) CAC histidine (His) CGC arginine (Arg) Third base C
First base C CUA leucine (Leu) CCA proline (Pro) CAA glutamine (Gln) CGA arginine (Arg) Third base A
First base C CUG leucine (Leu) CCG proline (Pro) CAG glutamine (Gln) CGG arginine (Arg) Third base G
First base A AUU isoleucine (Ile) ACU threonine (Thr) AAU asparagine (Asn) AGU serine (Ser) Third base U
First base A AUC isoleucine (Ile) ACC threonine (Thr) AAC asparagine (Asn) AGC serine (Ser) Third base C
First base A AUA isoleucine (Ile) ACA threonine (Thr) AAA lysine (Lys) AGA arginine (Arg) Third base A
First base A AUG methionine (Met) (start) ACG threonine (Thr) AAG lysine (Lys) AGG arginine (Arg) Third base G
First base G GUU valine (Val) GCU alanine (Ala) GAU aspartic acid (Asp) GGU glycine (Gly) Third base U
First base G GUC valine (Val) GCC alanine (Ala) GAC aspartic acid (Asp) GGC glycine (Gly) Third base C
First base G GUA valine (Val) GCA alanine (Ala) GAA glutamic acid (Glu) GGA glycine (Gly) Third base A
First base G GUG valine (Val) GCG alanine (Ala) GAG glutamic acid (Glu) GGG glycine (Gly) Third base G
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Transcription
• During transcription, complementary RNA is made from a
DNA template.
• Portion of DNA unwinds and unzips at the point of
attachment of RNA polymerase.
• Bases join in the order dictated by the sequence of bases
in the template DNA strand.
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Transcription to Form mRNA
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Processing Pre-mRNA
Newly made pre-mRNA must be processed.
• Capping and addition of poly-A tail provides stability
• Introns (noncoding) removed
• Leaves only exons (coding)
• Alternative splicing can produce different versions of
mRNA leading to different proteins.
• Now mature mRNA leaves nucleus and associates with
ribosome on cytoplasm.
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Figure 11.12 mRNA Processing
e = exons
i = introns
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Translation
Translation:
• tRNA brings in amino acids
• Anticodon—group of three bases complementary to a
specific codon of mRNA
• After translation is complete, a protein contains the
sequence of amino acids originally specified in the DNA.
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Figure 11.13 tRNA Structure and Function
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Translation
Ribosomes are composed of protein and rRNA.
Site of translation—protein synthesis
Binds mRNA and two tRNA molecules
• P site for a tRNA attached to a peptide.
• A site for newly arrived tRNA with an amino acid.
Three phases of translation
• Initiation
• Elongation
• Termination
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Translation
Three stages of translation in detail
Initiation
• mRNA binds to small subunit of ribosome.
• Large subunit then joins
Elongation
• Peptide lengthens one amino acid at a time.
Termination
• One of three stop codons reached
• Release factor causes ribosomal subunits and mRNA to dissociate.
• Complete polypeptide released
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Figure 11.14 Initiation
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Figure 11.15 Elongation
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Figure 11.16 Termination
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11.3 Gene Regulation
Levels of gene expression control
Figure 11.18 Gene
• Body contains many cells that Expression Results
differ in structure and function. in Specialized Cells
• Only certain genes are active in
cells that perform specialized
functions.
• Housekeeping genes govern
functions common to all cells.
• Activity of selected genes
accounts for specialization.
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Gene Expression in Prokaryotes
E. coli lives in our intestine and can quickly adjust its enzymes
according to what we eat.
If we drink milk, E. coli immediately begins to make three
enzymes needed to metabolize lactose.
Operon—cluster of bacterial genes along with DNA control
sequence
• François Jacob and Jacques Monod—Nobel Prize in 1961 for lac operon
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Gene Expression in Prokaryotes
Lactose not available most of the time
• E.coli does not normally transcribe the genes of the lac
operon.
• When lactose is not present, repressor binds to the operator
and RNA polymerase cannot attach to the promoter.
• Inhibits transcription
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Figure 11.19a The lac Operon
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Figure 11.19b The lac Operon
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The lac Operon
When lactose is present, it binds to the repressor.
• Repressor is inactivated and cannot attach to operator.
• RNA polymerase can bind and transcription occurs.
• System can also work for genes normally turned on.
• Binding of tryptophan (gene for synthesis normally on)
causes operator to be turned off.
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