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Energy Harvesting Technologies: A seminar report

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 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES

A SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted by

05180001 Abhishek Pokhrel

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN POWER ENGINEERING

IN

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

JIGME NAMGYEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF BHUTAN

DEWATHANG

(May 2022)
ABSTRACT
This report is inclusive of a brief introduction on energy harvesting. The objectives of
energy harvesting are discussed along with its various advantages and limitations. The various
technologies used are discussed. Some applications of energy harvesting technologies are
presented as well. Although a recent topic of internet, energy harvesting technologies is
predicted to be present more diversely in the global market in the years to come.

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies i

CONTENTS
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ i
List of Figures ................................................................................................................ iii
List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... iii
1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1
2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES .............................................................. 2
2.1 Piezoelectric energy harvesting .......................................................................... 2
2.1.1 Piezoelectric materials .......................................................................... 2
2.1.2 Working principle ................................................................................. 3
2.2 Electromagnetic energy harvesting .................................................................... 4
2.3 Electrostatic energy harvesting ........................................................................... 5
2.4 Thermal energy harvesting ................................................................................. 6
2.5 Pyroelectric energy harvesting ........................................................................... 7
2.6 Triboelectric energy harvesting .......................................................................... 8
2.7 Nano-based energy harvesting............................................................................ 8
3 ENERGY STORAGE FOR ENERGY HARVESTING ................................................ 9
3.1 Micro batteries and micro capacitors................................................................ 10
4 APPLICATIONS .......................................................................................................... 11
4.1 Building Automation ........................................................................................ 11
4.2 Condition Monitoring ....................................................................................... 12
4.3 Tyre Pressure Monitoring ................................................................................. 13
4.4 Aeronautics ....................................................................................................... 14
4.5 Structural Health Monitoring............................................................................ 15
4.6 Logistics............................................................................................................ 15
4.7 Consumer Electronics ....................................................................................... 16
4.7.1 Entertainment ...................................................................................... 16
4.7.2 Apparel and accessory ........................................................................ 16
4.7.3 Sports .................................................................................................. 17
4.7.4 Bio Applications ................................................................................. 17
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................................... 18
References .................................................................................................................... 19

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies ii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Block diagram of an energy harvesting system 1
Figure 2: A visual representation of direct piezoelectric effect 2
Figure 3: Inter-relationship of crystal properties 3
Figure 4: Block diagram of a piezoelectric energy harvester 3
Figure 5: Schematic diagram of a cantileverd piezoelectric energy harvester 4
Figure 6: Two types of piezoelectric harvester: d31 mode and d33 mode 4
Figure 7: Schematic diagram of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction 4
Figure 8: Typical configurations for electromagnetic energy harvesting: Moving magnet with
stationary coil & Moving coil with static magnet 5
Figure 9: Three electrostatic energy harvester mechanism: In-plane overlap, in-plane gap-
closing and out-of plane gap closing 6
Figure 10: Configurations of electrostatic energy harvesters 6
Figure 11: Schematic diagram representing Seebeck effect 6
Figure 12: Schematic diagram of pyroelectric effect 7
Figure 13: Schematics of Triboelectric effect 8
Figure 14: Piezoelectric nano-generator 9
Figure 15: Comparison of energy storage devices 10
Figure 16: Piezoswitch (Wireless switch) 11
Figure 17: A typical building automation system 11
Figure 18: A typical condition monitoring system 12

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

PZT – Lead Zirconate Titanate

Bi – Bismuth
Te – Terilium
CMOS – Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
AFM – Atomic Force Microscopy
HVAC – Heating, Ventilation & Air Conditioning
RF – Radio Frequency

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies iii

1 INTRODUCTION
The quest to harness renewable energy sources has recently prompted a substantial study in the
field of energy harvesting, in which clean, usable energy is extracted from ambient sources that
would otherwise be lost through a variety of innovative devices. At times, energy harvesting is
referred to as waste energy harvesting and energy scavenging. As people become more
interested in energy harvesting, new applications emerge. One fascinating application of energy
harvesting is to provide long-term power to wireless sensors, reducing their reliance on
batteries, which are toxic to the environment, have a short lifespan, and must be changed on a
regular basis. Energy harvesting technology not only ensures that these systems run
autonomously, but it also lowers maintenance costs, which is especially important for sensors
that operate in hostile settings or in inaccessible places. With recent improvements in wireless
devices, smaller, more efficient, and less power-demanding gadgets have generated interest in
energy harvesting technologies to replace batteries. Similarly, energy harvesting uses fewer
conductors and can be controlled remotely. It puts an end to the idea of obtaining energy from
traditional sources.
As shown in Figure 1, an energy harvesting system comprises of an energy harvester and a
power management system connected to an electrical load with or without an energy storage
device. Rather than an energy harvesting system, the focus of this research is on energy
harvesting technologies. As shown in Figure 1, an energy harvesting system comprises of an
energy harvester and a power management system connected to an electrical load with or
without an energy storage device. Rather than an energy harvesting system, the focus of this
research is on energy harvesting technologies.

Figure 1: Block diagram of an energy harvesting system

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 1

2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES

2.1 PIEZOELECTRIC ENERGY HARVESTING

The word piezoelectricity is derived from the Greek word
“piezein”, which means to squeeze or press [1]. There are
two types of piezoelectric effects: direct and reverse. The
direct effect is linked with the phenomena of electrical
charge, or more precisely, polarization, being generated
Figure 2: A visual representation of direct
by mechanical stress, whereas the inverse effect is piezoelectric effect
associated with mechanical movement caused by the
application of an electrical field. Literature[2] sometimes refers to direct piezoelectric effect as
generator piezoelectric effect and converse effect as motor piezoelectric effect. Piezoelectric
energy harvesting concerns with the direct effect.

2.1.1 Piezoelectric materials

Properties of piezoelectric materials are characterized by k factors which are also called
piezoelectric coupling factors. K factors are simple and direct measures of the
electromechanical effects' total strength.[3], i.e., the ability of the piezoelectric material to
convert one form of energy to another. The square root of the ratio of energy output in electrical
form to total mechanical energy input is used to define the direct effect. Because energy
conversion from one form to another is always inefficient, k is never equal to one. Higher k
values are most desirable and continually sought after in novel materials and are commonly
employed as a quality factor for piezoelectric materials. For ceramics, kp is a typical measure
used to compare piezoelectric properties of ferroelectric materials[4]. For instance, BaTiO3 has
a kp of 0.35 and it can get as high as 0.72 for PZT [5]. The d coefficients are called piezoelectric
coefficients. Subscript is used to describe the relative direction of inputs and outputs. For
example, d31 means that this piezoelectric coefficient relates to the generation of polarization
(direct effect) in the electrodes perpendicular to the vertical direction (3) and to the stress
mechanically applied in the lateral direction (1), while d33 indicates the polarization generated
in the vertical direction (3) when the stress is applied in the same direction. g factors are called
open-circuit coefficients, other parameters used to evaluate piezoelectric ceramics for their
ability to generate substantial amounts of voltage per unit of input stress. High-g-constant
piezoelectric ceramics are typically ferroelectrically hard materials with difficult polarization
switching [6]. As a result, their K values are lower.
Because they have intriguing inter-relationships in terms of crystal structures [7],
piezoelectricity is often explored with ferroelectricity and pyroelectricity. Figure 3 depicts the
inter-relationship, which may be understood as follows (derived from [8]). There are thirty-two
different classifications in which crystals can be classified. Twenty-one of the thirty-two classes
are non-centrosymmetric, which is a requirement for the existence of piezoelectricity. They are
piezoelectric in twenty of them. Ten crystals in the twenty piezoelectric crystal classes have
pyroelectric characteristics.

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 2

Within a given temperature range, this group of
materials is permanently polarized. Unlike the
usual piezoelectric polarization that occurs when
a structure is stressed, the pyroelectric
polarization occurs spontaneously and is
maintained as permanent dipoles in the structure.
The response is called pyroelectricity because the
polarization fluctuates with temperature. There is
a subset of pyroelectric materials called
ferroelectric materials that has spontaneous
polarization. On the one hand, polarization in a
ferroelectric material is like that of a pyroelectric
material. However, there is a distinction between
Figure 3: Inter-relationship of crystal properties
the two polarizations since ferroelectric
polarization can be reversed by an external applied electric field if the applied field is less than
the materials' dielectric breakdown. Therefore, materials that can be defined as ferroelectrics
must have two characteristics: the presence of spontaneous polarization and reversibility of the
polarization under electric field[6].
Fully dense piezoelectric ceramics are required by most applications for several reasons [7]. To
begin with, thorough densification guarantees that the ceramics operate at their best. The
piezoelectric constant of piezoceramics, for example, typically decreases as density decreases.
This is because there is no piezoelectric action in pores or vacuum [3]. Second, the presence of
pores is a cause of high loss, as porosity can act as a conduction conduit for electricity [6],
contributing significantly to dielectric loss as conduction loss. External electric fields are
ineffective in this instance. Furthermore, electrical conduction produced by porosity contributes
to lower electrical breakdown strength [1]. Finally, the density of the materials employed affects
mechanical strength, which is frequently a significant need. With rising temperature, the
densities of piezoelectric materials rise. Temperatures that are too high are likewise dangerous.
Lead zirconate titanate, commonly referred to as PZT, is the most widely used to fabricate
piezoelectric ceramics.

2.1.2 Working principle

To convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy, a mechanical system
that relates motion or vibration to a
transduction mechanism is required.
Depending on the features of the
ambient motions, the mechanical
system should be constructed to
Figure 4: Block diagram of a piezoelectric energy harvester
maximize the coupling between
mechanical energy sources and the transduction mechanism. Inertial generators, for example,
can convert vibration energy, with the mechanical part coupled to an inertial frame that serves
as a fixed reference. The vibrations are transmitted by the inertial frame to a suspended inertial
mass, resulting in a relative displacement between them. This type of system usually has a
resonance frequency that can be tuned to match the natural frequency of the surroundings.

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 3

When subjected to external
mechanical loads,
piezoelectric materials can
generate electrical charges.
The amplitude and direction
of the external mechanical
stress/strain applied to the Figure 5: Schematic diagram of a cantileverd piezoelectric energy harvester
materials dictate the size and
direction of the electrical current. The cantilevered beams with a few piezoelectric ceramic thin
sheets are the simplest and most often utilized piezoelectric structures for diverse modes of
vibration.
The harvester beam is positioned onto a vibrating host, where strain induced in the piezoceramic
layer(s) results in an alternating voltage output across their electrodes. Cantilevered
piezoelectric energy harvesters can work in two modes (d31 mode and d33 mode): a lateral force
is applied in the direction perpendicular to the polarization direction where the bending beam
has electrodes on its top and bottom surfaces or forces are applied in the same direction as the
polarization direction, where the bending beam has all electrodes on its top surface. Although
piezoelectric materials working in the latter mode normally have lower coupling coefficients,
this mode is more commonly used. This is because when the cantilever bends, more lateral
stress is produced than vertical stress, which makes it easier to couple [9].

Figure 6: Two types of piezoelectric harvester: d31 mode and d33 mode

To study the mechanics of piezoelectric energy harvesting and evaluate the performances of
alternative current power generation, the devices are usually considered to be subject to a
resistive load in the electrical domain [7]. To use the electricity produced by a piezoelectric
energy harvester, the alternating voltage output should be converted to a stable rectified voltage.
This can be realized by using a rectifier bridge and a smoothing capacitor to form an AC–DC
converter. The energy can be used to charge small batteries or stored in capacitors. To maximize
the power transfer to the energy storage devices, it is also necessary to use a DC–DC converter
to regulate the voltage outputs of the rectifier. These electrical circuit and power electronics are
very important for practical applications of the energies harvested [10].

2.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY HARVESTING

Electromagnetism has been utilized to generate
electricity since the early 1930s [11], not long after
Faraday’s fundamental breakthrough in electromagnetic
induction. Over the last decade, a variety of micro/macro
electromagnetic energy harvesters, varying in scale from
a few cubic millimeters to a few cubic centimeters, have
Figure 7: Schematic diagram of Faraday's law
been investigated. The power generation ranges from of electromagnetic induction

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 4

microwatts to watts have demonstrated a promising feasibility for future applications[12]. The
basic principle for most of the electromagnetic energy harvesters is based on Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction.
The electromagnetic energy harvesting
requires a magnetic field that is
generated using permanent magnets or
electromagnets. However, an
electromagnet requires a current flow
to produce a magnetic field and thus
consume power. Hence, it is not
Figure 8: Typical configurations for electromagnetic energy
suitable for the small-scale, low-power, harvesting: Moving magnet with stationary coil & Moving coil with
energy-harvesting devices. Permanent static magnet
bulk magnets are made from hard ferromagnetic materials that are subjected to special
processing in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture, to align their internal
microcrystalline structures, making them extremely hard to demagnetize [11]. A ferromagnetic
material is composed of many magnetic domains. The magnetic domain is formed by large
numbers of atom’s moments grouped together within which their magnetic moments are aligned
in a particular direction [13]. The strong magnetic properties of a ferromagnetic material are
gained due to the presence of magnetic domain. Taking the magnet, in a virgin state, each
domain oriented in a different direction [14] and the net magnetic field is zero [15]. Once a
magnetizing force is applied, the domains become aligned and thus produce a strong magnetic
field within the magnet. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of ferromagnetic materials [16],
which have a large, positive susceptibility to an external magnetic field. They exhibit a strong
attraction to magnetic fields and can retain their magnetic properties after the external field has
been removed.

2.3 ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY HARVESTING

Due to the limited battery life of handheld electronics ranging from mobile phones and cameras
to health-care devices, harvesting energy from ambient vibrations to power such devices will
be a viable alternative. Piezoelectric, electromagnetic, and electrostatic processes are three
common types of energy conversion systems for collecting electricity from vibration. The
application environment and operating parameters, such as the vibration amplitude [17] and
resonance frequency of the excitation sources [18], influence the mechanism selection. When
the volume of the energy harvester is reduced to 1% of its original size, the energy
electromechanical coupling coefficient of the electromagnetic mechanism drops 10 times faster
than that of the electrostatic mechanism [19]. As a result, the electrostatic mechanism will be a
viable option for achieving the miniaturization criteria [19-21]. Capacitive-based electrostatic
mechanism harvesters, on the other hand, can be made at a large scale [22] and at a low cost
due to their great integration with electronics and the nature of common downsizing and
packaging procedures.
The variable capacitor is the foundation of electrostatic energy conversion. Charge-constrained
and voltage-constrained conversion methods are the two most common forms of energy
conversion cycles. When the charge passing through the capacitor is restricted, the voltage rises

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 5

as the capacitance falls. When the voltage across the capacitor is limited, charge will flow out
of the capacitor as the capacitance decreases [21-24].
Variable capacitors made of parallel-plate or comb finger electrodes are biased with external
voltage sources or charged by an electret in electrostatic energy harvesters. External vibrations
split or shut the capacitor electrodes, causing the variable capacitor to be a function of the
ambient vibrations. As shown in Figures 9 and 10, there are three types of electrostatic energy
harvesters.
To optimize the effect of device configurations on energy output, the output energy density that
is obtained by normalizing the output energy with the device volume is analyzed and compared
in terms of three mechanisms [25]. The charge-constrained method is more popular as it
requires less material and hence is cheaper [26].

Figure 9: Three electrostatic energy harvester mechanism: In-plane overlap, in-plane

gap-closing and out-of plane gap closing
Figure 10: Configurations of
electrostatic energy
harvesters
2.4 THERMAL ENERGY HARVESTING
Thermal energy, in addition to vibration energy, is another source of usable energy. In a car or
a furnace, for example, burning fuels like oil and natural gas releases thermal energy. The
Seebeck effect allows thermoelectric energy harvesters to convert a steady-state temperature
differential to electricity [27-28]. By using a correct thermodynamic cycle, pyroelectric energy
harvesters may convert time-dependent temperature fluctuations into electricity [29].
The Seebeck effect underpins the operation of
thermoelectric energy harvesters. In a circuit, the
electromotive force is produced by keeping the
connections of two distinct metals at different
temperatures. A thermoelectric harvester is made up of
two thermoelectric semiconductors that have been
exposed to a temperature difference, a hot junction, and
a cold junction that are electrically coupled in series on
the top and bottom, as shown in Figure 10. Most charge
carriers in an n-type semiconductor are negatively
Figure 11: Schematic diagram representing
charged electrons, whereas most charge carriers in a p- Seebeck effect
type semiconductor are positively charged holes. [30]
A temperature differential causes electrons and holes to accumulate on the cold side. The n- and
p-type semiconductors' voltages combine to push an electrical current through a loading
resistance. Because of its superior thermoelectric capabilities, Bi2Te3 is currently used as the
thermoelectric material in most commercial thermoelectric power producers. Researchers [31-

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 6

34] have successfully built a prototype of wireless sensor nodes powered by thermoelectric
harvesters made of Bi2Te3 material that may be worn by humans. Regular thin-film technology
in combination with microsystem technology produced the first thermoelectric devices based
on [35]. However, Bi2Te3 and its alloy are still hard to come by [36], and further work is being
done to make the material compatible with regular silicon chip fabrication procedures.
Furthermore, these thermoelectric materials are not compatible with CMOS [31].

2.5 PYROELECTRIC ENERGY HARVESTING

Pyroelectric energy conversion can convert waste heat into electricity by alternatively heating
and cooling a pyroelectric material resulting in electricity generations [37].
Pyroelectricity (from the two Greek words pyr meaning fire [1], and electricity) is a property of
certain crystals which are naturally electrically polarized and as a result contain large electric
fields.[38] Pyroelectricity can be described as the ability of certain materials to generate a
temporary voltage when they are heated or cooled.[39]

Figure 12: Schematic diagram of pyroelectric effect

The change in temperature modifies the positions of the atoms slightly within the crystal
structure, such that the polarization of the material changes. This polarization change gives rise
to a voltage across the crystal. If the temperature stays constant at its new value, the pyroelectric
voltage gradually disappears due to leakage current. The leakage can be due to electrons moving
through the crystal, ions moving through the air, or current leaking through a voltmeter attached
across the crystal.[40]
Pyroelectric harvesters depend on the property that the spontaneous polarization (and hence
dielectric constant) of certain materials is temperature dependent. It starts by charging the
pyroelectric element at a low temperature by increasing the voltage from one point to other.
Then the pyroelectric element is discharged by heating the element a higher temperature at a
constant voltage. Next, the material is further discharged by reducing the voltage at the constant
temperature. Finally, the pyroelectric element is recharged by cooling it at a constant voltage
[40-42].

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 7

2.6 TRIBOELECTRIC ENERGY HARVESTING
Triboelectric energy harvesting
devices work on the principles of
contact electrification and
electrostatic induction. Contact
electrification is the phenomenon of
charging two surfaces due to friction
when the surfaces are put in contact
with each other. Triboelectricity has
been known as a phenomenon for
many decades but usually has
negative connotations attached to it
because of its negative effects in
electronic devices [43]. The principle
of triboelectricity is based on Figure 13: Schematics of Triboelectric effect

charging of two surfaces when they are put in contact with each other. When two materials
come into contact there is a charge transfer, one membrane becomes positively charged and the
other negatively charged creating an electronic potential difference with the presence of an air
gap. There have been many theories proposed in literature to explain this phenomenon [44-49].
However, the cause of electrostatic induction is still not well understood [45]. One of the well-
established models to explain the concept of electron transfer is based on difference in work
functions of materials [46]. Recently, researchers have demonstrated contact electrification as
a viable method to generate power [50]. Triboelectric energy harvesters have a lot of potential
to be a feasible solution for power needs, not just at the microscale or nanoscale but also at a
larger scale (e.g., harvesting energy from ocean waves, wind energy, and energy from motion
of vehicles and pedestrians).

2.7 NANO-BASED ENERGY HARVESTING

Nanogenerator-based piezoelectric materials have gotten a lot of attention lately, thanks to their
ability to convert vibrational and triboelectric energy into electricity for powering nanodevices
and nano systems. Because nanodevices and nano systems often run at low power levels in the
nanowatt to microwatt range [51-53], the environmental energy scavenged by nano-based
harvesters may be sufficient to power the system [53-55]. By coupling their semiconducting
and piezoelectric properties, mechanical strains of different piezoelectric materials and
nanowires can be converted into electricity.
The working principle of nano-based harvesters relies on the piezoelectric potential created in
the nanowires or nanofibers by an external strain under a small force. A dynamic straining of
the nanowire or nanofiber generates a transient flow of the electrons in the external load because
of the driving force of the piezo potential [51, 55, 56]. The advantage of using nanowires is that
they can be excited by tiny physical motions under the frequency range from 1 Hz to thousands
of hertz [57]. It is ideal for scavenging random energy such as body motion, triboelectricity,
and air flow existing in the environment. The physical principle for creating, separating, and
preserving the piezoelectric charges in the nanowires or nanofibers is a coupling of piezoelectric
and semiconducting properties [58]. Figure 14 shows the working principle of nano harvesters

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 8

excited by the AFM tip. When the deflection of the
vertical nanowire by the AFM tip causes a strain field,
the outer surface is tensile with a positive strain and the
inner surface is compressive with a negative strain. A
piezoelectric field along nanowires is generated inside
the nanowire volume by piezoelectric effect, with the
piezoelectric field is closely parallel to the nanowire at Figure 14: Piezoelectric nano-generator
the outer surface and antiparallel to the nanowire at the inner surface. As a result, the electric
potential distributed across the width of the nanowire at the top end from the compressed to the
stretched side surface is approximately between the negative and positive potentials [55]. The
energy conversion efficiency of nanogenerators is an important performance parameter for the
application of energy scavenging. It is defined as the ratio between the electric energy that is
delivered the load and the input mechanical energy from the applied strain. The electric energy
delivered by the nanogenerator is equal to the Joule heating energy and can be expressed as [56]
Several groups [57-62] have demonstrated first prototypes of nanofiber nanogenerators. Further
development of fiber-based nanogenerators focuses on the improvement of energy conversion
efficiency.
3 ENERGY STORAGE FOR ENERGY HARVESTING
For over a century, batteries and electrochemical capacitors have been the mainstay energy
storage components of machines, tools, and gadgets. With steady improvements and
miniaturization of energy storage technology, the relationship between people and electronic
devices has gradually evolved [63]. This evolution has caused modern society to develop a
strong dependence on batteries and supercapacitors for the upkeep of both comforts and
necessities [64], from powering our personal mobile phones to large industrial process
equipment. Choices for the materials, design, and production of an energy storage device can
vary extensively depending on a host of parameters, including an application’s performance
and lifetime requirements, size, cost, [65-67] and, of more recent concern, environmental
impact. Devising power supplies for small, autonomous wireless systems has been especially
onerous, providing engineers with a rich opportunity for innovation because of its stringent
demands.
The reduction of electronic device form factors and their power demands has augmented the
prospects of realizing a fully integrated microdevice platform, one with computation,
communication, and sensing capabilities all enabled by a permanent power source [68]. The
implications of the widespread deployment of these devices, especially autonomous wireless
sensor nodes, are pivotal to a variety of fields including emergency response [69], structural
monitoring [70], and the cost- and energy-effective regulation of home, industrial, and office
energy use [71]. For wireless microdevices with footprint areas occupying less than a unit
centimeter area of a substrate, typical power demands can vary, oftentimes spanning a few
orders of magnitude from microwatts to milliwatts depending on the application. The need for
a micropower source that can satisfy the power requirements of a wireless device within
comparable geometric dimensions has incited a surge of research within the fields of
microfabrication, energy harvesting, and energy storage [69].

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 9

3.1 MICRO BATTERIES AND MICRO CAPACITORS
Planar batteries are one of the simplest
configurations to construct, comprising of two
electrodes positioned adjacent to each other on a
substrate. Since the electrodes are physically
detached, a separator is not necessary.
Oftentimes, planar cells are simply submerged
in a liquid electrolyte or blanketed with a solid
or polymer electrolyte film. The electrodes may
be patterned into a variety of shapes such as Figure 15: Comparison of energy storage devices
square pads or more elaborate interdigitated
structures, but regardless the current density distribution across each electrode varies with
respect to its relative distance from the adjacent electrode. This uneven current distribution may
result in unfavorable consequences especially during rapid charge and discharge. However, if
the internal resistances within the electrodes are minimal, reasonable performance may be
achieved.[70]
The miniaturization of traditional, 2D, rechargeable macro batteries in all three dimensions has
proven to be a challenging task because of the complexities in reconciling materials,
geometrical, processing, and performance constraints into a small, integrated electrochemical
device. Thin and thick film fabrication strategies have been explored and encouraging strides
towards integrating these micro batteries into hybrid micropower supplies have been made. [71]
The implementations of micro capacitors have for the most part resembled the progress of micro
batteries. Continued material improvements have diminished the gap between achievable
battery and electrochemical capacitor energy densities, and fabrication advancements have
resulted in preliminary demonstrations of micro capacitors for integrated micropower supplies.
Besides the prospects described in this chapter, there are opportunities for large performance
improvements, specifically through accessing higher cell voltages by using two dissimilar
electrode materials of either battery or capacitor character. These asymmetric capacitor
configurations are known as hybrid electrochemical capacitors [72]. By combining a battery
cathode with a pseudocapacitive anode, the hybrid electrochemical device, in theory, offers the
“best of both worlds,” providing high energy density from its battery electrode, yet maintaining
high power density through its pseudocapacitive electrode. Achievable energy densities are
usually an order of magnitude greater than carbon electrochemical capacitors without
significant power density reduction (~1 kW/kg). Future work investigating the operating
principles and longevity of this device is necessary, but it seems that the eventual
miniaturization of this device could be straightforward [69].
The need for miniature electrochemical energy storage devices for secondary storage with micro
energy harvesting devices has prompted new paradigms in materials, geometry, and processing.
As a result, a surge of new research concepts and demonstrations has emerged, especially in the
last decade. Both micro batteries and micro capacitors have been fabricated with a variety of
two-dimensional and three-dimensional configurations, and depending on the processing
methods developed, a wide range of material chemistries has been implemented. Perhaps the
numerous endeavors discussed above indicate that there will not be a single energy storage
solution, but rather many appropriate strategies for a diverse number of applications. [73]

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 10

4 APPLICATIONS
Energy harvesting makes use of ambient energy sources to power small electronic devices.
Typical examples of these environmental power sources are vibrations from vehicles or
machines or heat from motors or the human body. Energy transducers convert this ambient
energy into electrical energy. The goal of energy harvesting is to replace batteries and wires
used for power supply or at least, to extend recharge intervals of energy storage elements.
A first large application field is the building automation sector with self-powered light switches,
popularly known as piezo switch. Upcoming applications are condition-monitoring systems for
large industrial plants or structural health monitoring in huge buildings. Most often, wireless
sensors or sensor networks are powered with ambient energy sources. Another promising
market is the consumer area with bags, apparel and the like which exhibit integrated energy
transducers in form of solar cells to recharge consumer products like mobile phones.

4.1 BUILDING AUTOMATION

Building automation systems are networks of electronic devices
to control different functionalities in a building. They manage
lights, heaters, air conditioning systems, doors, valves, security
systems and the like. They also monitor the status of the building
and send messages to the building’s engineering staff or a
central control computer. The advantages of building
automation are reduced energy and maintenance costs,
improved security, and comfort. Typical energy savings with the
help of building automation systems are around 30% [74].
Examples are occupancy sensors turning off the lights or
window sensors controlling heating and ventilation. Energy
harvesting in building automation generates a lot of benefits
compared to power supplies by wires or batteries. Most
important, it saves cost and energy. The cost savings appear in
different categories. Energy harvesting saves installation costs Figure 17: A typical building
automation system
because no drilling and wiring is needed to provide power lines.
Typical reduction in cabling can be around 70% [75]. In this
way, it also preserves the building envelope and enables the
installation on difficult surfaces like stone, brick, or glass in,
e.g., greenhouses or atriums. It also reduces operational costs,
because no energy is needed for the devices powered by energy
harvesting. Additionally, it saves maintenance costs because no
batteries must be replaced or recharged. Moreover, using
ambient energy sources provides ecological compatibility,
eliminating batteries and the use of cable material (copper, Figure 16: Piezoswitch (Wireless
plastics, etc.). Finally, it reduces potential displacement costs, switch)

because the devices are wireless and can easily be moved from one place to another. By energy
harvesting, a lot of money for installation work and time, energy, operation, service, and
maintenance can be saved achieving a return on invest of the energy harvesting device in a very
short time.

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 11

4.2 CONDITION MONITORING
The idea of condition monitoring is to measure physical parameters like temperature, vibration,
speed, or position to care for security and efficiency. Condition monitoring can be used for all
kinds of machinery like motors, pumps, fans, or compressors. By analyzing the physical
parameters, abuse or defects can be detected and further damage is avoided by appropriate
maintenance or repair. Condition monitoring can determine possible failures, required
maintenance and repair times. It is the most effective means to ensure efficient operation, help
prevent unexpected failures and reduce repair costs and downtime. The benefits of condition
monitoring are improved maintenance planning, scheduling and increased safety and
environmental compliance. Moreover, asset reliability, availability, higher throughput, and
quality are the positive effects of condition monitoring. On the other hand, reduced maintenance
costs, energy consumption, spare parts inventory and catastrophic asset failures and downtime
are achieved. With help of condition monitoring, only parts that need replacing are replaced.
Parts will be used for longer times and the number of spare parts in stock or produced in advance
is reduced. Most important, with on-side monitoring, parts which are wearing out can be
replaced before a serious defect occurs and operation is stopped totally.
Condition monitoring employs different kinds of
sensors to measure the operational parameters of the
system under surveillance. All these data must be
collected and analyzed by microprocessors. Finally, if
predefined thresholds are exceeded, warnings are
reported to the responsible personnel. Moreover, the
dynamic behavior is evaluated and deviations from the
usual behavior are detected. Most common is the offline
data collection with handheld devices carried out by
Figure 18: A typical condition monitoring
service personal. Alternatively, all the employed sensors system
will be connected and powered by wires, producing a
huge amount of installation and material costs. Certain condition-monitoring systems provide
an Ethernet connection to collect all data and pass it to a central computer. For example, in
many industrial applications the cost of wiring may be US$40 per foot or more and often
exceeds the cost of the remote sensor [74-75]. More feasible are wireless sensors networks,
which transmit the data by radio signals, eliminating the need for the installation of wires.
Isolation is required in some applications as well, e.g., in high power transmission systems, thus
wireless data transmission is best suited for these cases. Although the wiring costs for
communications and power cables are eliminated with wireless devices, these costs are replaced
with the continuous cost of batteries and maintenance. This includes manpower, logistics,
environmentally conscious disposal, protection from potential leakage, and potential equipment
downtime due to unexpected battery failure. With energy harvesting, sensors, radios, actuators,
processors, and displays can be powered without batteries or at least without the need for
recharging or replacing them. Furthermore, installation in inaccessible, remote, or dangerous
areas and embedding them into machinery becomes possible. Besides the transmission of the
measurement values like acceleration and temperature, displays directly at the sensors can be
applied to enable monitoring of the interesting parameters at the location of occurrence.
The need to measure physical parameters like vibration or temperature at different locations of
a machine or equipment further facilitates the use of wireless networks. Depending on the

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 12

equipment to monitor, different duty cycles in terms of data acquisition and transmission are
required because of different operational modes, speeds, stresses, and strains. Thus, a certain
programmability of the sensor nodes to realize different duty cycles is necessary. This will also
affect the power requirement and thus the size and system cost of the energy harvesting power
supply significantly. The self-powered sensor node performs local processing and transmits
analytic results or raw sampled data to a central node for database storage and more extensive
diagnostics and prognostics. The decision about raw data transmission or pre-signal processing
in the sensor node is depending on the available energy in the node and the required energy for
these tasks compared to the energy for the transmission of data. Sometimes it is more power-
efficient to spend more energy for data processing in the node and thus reduce the time and so
the power for data transmission. On the other hand, it can be more efficient to transmit
everything and save the energy for data processing. This is most often depending on the distance
to cover, the data rate or bandwidth and the environment like walls, machines, or other metallic
obstacles, which influence the transmission power significantly. Anyway, some programmable
threshold values are monitored in the sensor node and just alarms will be sent when these are
exceeded. The interesting parameters to monitor in condition-monitoring systems do not change
fast. Defects build up during hours or days; thus, the duty cycle in terms of measuring and
analyzing the parameters is more in the range of hours and days then seconds and minutes.
Condition monitoring is done in the form of snapshots sampling the interesting data only
occasionally. This has significant influence on the power consumption and the design of the
energy harvesting power supply. Strict power management can be applied to keep the power
consumption at a minimum. This is usually done by turning off components presently not
required. Thus, sensors are powered only for the small periods of the measurement, including a
certain transient time to power on. Also, the transceiver and especially the power amplifier are
switched on only during transmission of small data bursts like in cellular communication
networks.

4.3 TYRE PRESSURE MONITORING

Tyre pressure monitoring is a means to increase safety and efficiency of all kinds of vehicles
using inflated tyres by monitoring the pressure. Tyre pressure monitoring systems were first
adopted in 1986 in a Porsche 959 [76]. The technology was further used in top range luxury
vehicles like Audi, Mercedes Benz and BMW to increase safety and maintenance economy
[77]. Since 2000, passenger cars were equipped with this feature as well [78]. In 1990, more
than 100 deaths from rollovers following a tyre tread-separation led tyre companies to a large
recall [79]. Several acts in developed countries mandates the use of a suitable tyre pressure
monitoring technology [80] to alert drivers of a severe under-inflation condition of their tyres.
It affects all light motor vehicles in recent times. Besides personal cars, TPMS have also
potential application fields in airplanes, commercial trucks, buses, recreational and off-highway
vehicles, and motorbikes [81-84].

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 13

4.4 AERONAUTICS [85-89]
Objectives of energy harvesting are reduction of installation costs and weight, improvement of
modularity and to enable rapid introduction of new features and fast reconfiguration. These
objectives are especially interesting large vehicles like ships or airplanes. In planes, there are
several application areas for self-powered systems like condition or structural health
monitoring, flight tests and passenger comfort, which can be implemented with energy
harvesting. In structural health monitoring, strain and corrosion are of special interest.
Corrosion costs the aircraft industry about 2.2 billion dollar per year [85], caused among others
by unnecessary and costly aircraft downtime. Current prevention programs rely on scheduled,
invasive visual inspections. Inspections are vital in aeronautics, since failures in the air have
dramatic consequences, risking health or even life of passengers. These inspections are usually
done on the ground, leading to financial losses because the plane is not used during these
inspection times. Furthermore, a lot of inaccessible areas must be covered, increasing the
inspection time and thus the financial losses [85]. A concept changes from scheduled
maintenance to on-condition maintenance would require integrated sensors instead of ground
test equipment, possibility of remote sensing of inaccessible and distant areas and sensor
networks for complex airframe structure monitoring. The benefits would be maintenance and
cabin crew support, decreased maintenance, repair, and overhaul effort and increased in-service
time. The technical solution for this oncondition maintenance could be wireless sensor networks
because they are easy to install, without cables or special preparations and they provide
intelligent network capabilities. In the aeronautic application, an operation in harsh
environment, e.g. between −55oC and +85oC, at humidity, ice and acceleration is vital.
Furthermore, lightweight, and long lifetime comparable to that of the aircraft is required. All
these specifications demand a self-powered energy supply which can be provided with energy
harvesting technologies. The power requirements are comparable to that of other applications
of sensor networks, with a required electrical output power in the range of a few milli Watts
and the capability to provide peak currents for transmission bursts. Another aeronautic vehicle
well suited for energy harvesting is the helicopter. To increase the lifetime of a helicopter,
dynamic component removal, structural health monitoring and replacement must be optimized.
By tracking loading histories, components are monitored, and individual maintenance of actual
usage is possible. Tracking damage on the rotating structural components of helicopters can be
implemented by wireless strain gauges. One of those critical components of the helicopter is
the control rod or “pitch link”. The pitch link is responsible for controlling the rotors’ angle.
The loads on these pitch links vary strongly with the present flight regime with much higher
loads during maneuvers compared to straight or level flight. Thus, this pitch link is a good
indicator for the stress of the vehicle and thus will report important data for condition-based
maintenance. Recently, energy harvesting also starts to be adapted for unmanned aerial
vehicles, used in many military operations. A critical issue is the endurance of these increasingly
smaller aircrafts. The limited size of the fuel system gives rise to several optimization goals and
the rechargeable battery consumes much of the total mass.

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 14

4.5 STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING [90-92]
Structural health monitoring is the process of detecting damage in components and
constructions. It is the static counterpart to condition monitoring where moving or vibrating
systems are observed. The goal of structural health monitoring is to improve the safety and
reliability of aerospace, civil and mechanical infrastructure by predicting and detecting damage
before it reaches a critical state. Especially extreme events like earthquakes and typhoons,
weight of snow and storm or just the aging of the materials and the environmental deterioration
causes serious concerns on the integrity of any structures. These are closely related to the public
safety; thus, knowledge of the structures health, load-bearing capacity, and remaining life is the
primary goal of any strategy of structural health monitoring [90].
To achieve this goal, technology is being developed to replace qualitative visual inspection and
time-based maintenance procedures with more quantifiable and automated damage assessment
processes. These processes are implemented using both hardware and software with the intent
of achieving more cost-effective condition-based maintenance. An obstacle in structural health
monitoring systems, especially for large structures is the intensive costs of hardware,
installation, and maintenance. To guarantee a reliable communication and thus system
functionality, often coaxial cables are used between the sensors and the central or control unit
for data evaluation and post processing. These cables exhibit large costs, arriving at prices of
US$500 per sensor channel [91]. Due to the fact, that the costs of the structural health
monitoring grow faster than linear with the number of sensors, 350 sensing channels on the
Tsing Ma Suspension Bridge in Hong Kong were estimated to over US$8 million [91].
structural health monitoring methods in vehicles like aeroplanes or ships often necessitate the
complete immobilization, which produces large economic losses. A promising approach in
structural health monitoring are ‘smart materials’, which are defined by an automatic adaption
of their own properties as a reaction to external influences. In other words, smart materials
couple two forms of energy, like electric and mechanical energy in the case of piezoelectric
materials. Thus, these materials can be used as sensor or as actuator and exhibit a large
application range in structural health monitoring.

4.6 LOGISTICS [92]

Logistics deals with the flow of goods between different locations. It includes the information,
the security and the management of the goods. Tasks to fulfil from the technical system are the
tracking and tracing of assets to provide the user or customer with the exact position.
Additionally, important parameters of the goods will be collected. Typical examples are
temperature measurements in frozen cargoes or shock sensors for fragile goods, which act like
a quality control. Other parameters to monitor are air quality or humidity, e.g. for plants or
animals. Reporting history or status of goods is another issue in logistics. Examples are
containers, trucks or pallets which can carry all different kinds of goods. Special cases are
dangerous goods like chemicals or toxic waste which must be handled with a certain care.
Another example for a technical system in logistics is inventory control, where the actual
number and location of certain assets are monitored. This could be done, for example, by access
control of buildings or identification of vehicles which deliver goods and so on.

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 15

4.7 CONSUMER ELECTRONICS [93-96]
Consumer electronics are devices for everyday use, usually for entertainment, communication,
and office applications. Due to the large quantities of primary and secondary batteries in
consumer electronics, like watches, headsets, toys, mobile phones, cameras or remote controls,
this sector provides a huge potential for energy harvesting. However, in all the present
applications, the energy harvesting power supply must compete with the battery, especially its
price, but also with its weight and volume, which are critical parameters of consumer devices.
Since the technologies of energy harvesting have not yet reached the mass fabrication and mass
market, the material and device costs are presently often too high to enter the consumer market
right now. Thus, in this chapter, mainly promising prototypes and demonstrators are reported.

4.7.1 Entertainment [92]

First applications of piezoelectric transducers in dance clubs are realized to use the mechanical
energy during dancing. Designed by Dutch company Sustainable Dance Club, the floor deflects
half an inch as people dance and it compresses a piezoelectric material under it. The floor
produces between 2 and 20 W of power in a given area, depending on the impact of the patrons
feed. For now, only the LED light on the floor are powered from it, but in the future, with newer
technology more gain is expected. In London, Surya, another eco-nightclub, uses this
technology. American company Powerleap is developing flooring systems which harvest
energy from pedestrian and vehicular traffic for different kinds of applications. Their target
application fields start with powering small electronic devices like wireless transmitters to track
consumer data, create interactive environments and control lighting and HVACs. One of the
benefits here will be a substantial energy saving in buildings, compared to the wireless sensors
and transceivers from the building automation application. More power intensive applications
include displays for interactive media or way-finding and light bulbs. Finally, a goal of these
transducers integrated in floors is to back up the power grid. Their generators are designed for
high traffic areas like train platforms, sport stadiums, city sidewalks, doorways and the like.
Typical power output of these floor generators can range up to 1 mJ per step [92]. The
Powerleap mats are used in 1500 Zara stores worldwide and achieves a saving of 20% on their
energy bill [92]. In the entertainment sector, a big consumer of batteries and thus a potential
candidate for energy harvesting are remote controls. Because of direct interaction with the
human body, energy from the human body can be used for powering the electronics inside these
devices. Companies have developed a battery-free remote control. A piezoelectric generator for
power supply and a microcontroller with integrated RF technology are used to transmit data
patterns to control home appliances. By pressing any button on the remote control, the
piezoelectric material provides electrical energy to power the electronic circuits inside the
device.

4.7.2 Apparel and accessory [92]

Apparel and accessory provide a great opportunity to integrate energy harvesting technologies
to use energy from the human body or the environment. The most promising and most advanced
examples are solar cells in backpacks, jackets, or shoulder bags. The solar cells use the sunlight
to generate electrical energy to power electronic devices like mobile phones, audio players and
the like. German company Solarc was one of the pioneers of such products when they
introduced a shoulder bag with flexible solar modules. This shoulder bag has flexible solar

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 16

modules with dimensions of 200 times 100 mm and a thickness of 1.5 mm which provide up to
1 W electrical power to any device connected inside. In 2010, Samsonite also announced the
launch of solar consumer products. Jackets with solar cells on the collar to recharge mobile
phones or iPods have also been commercialized in recent times. The solar modules of 9 cm by
5.5 cm provide about 0.5 W under full sun. The output voltage of the whole system is selectable,
and a lithium-ion battery is used as energy buffer.

4.7.3 Sports
In sports applications, there are several electronic devices which are usually powered by
batteries and thus exhibit opportunities for energy harvesting. Alike other user scenarios, the
power consumption differs depending on operational mode, like active, standby, or lighting
mode. Most popular are sports watches with a power requirement of some micro-Watts in
normal operation mode. Certain products are already equipped with energy harvesting power
supplies. Examples are watches with solar cells, camping tents with large solar modules or the
bike dynamo as one of the first energy harvesting products [97]. Aside from powering sports
devices or related accessory with energy harvesting technologies, the energy spent during sports
activities could be used for other purposes. The gym Green Microgym in Portland, Oregon, uses
the machines like stationary bikes to harvest the energy during the workout. For now, only a
small fraction of the energy consumption of the building is supplied with such machines.

4.7.4 Bio Applications [37, 42]

Implantable biotechnology has undergone rapid development during the past two decades.
Some implantable devices either have become realities today or are currently being investigated
[21]. Considering the feasibility of bio-implantable applications and the lifetime of many
implantable devices, the methods of powering these devices have become the research hotspot.
Normally power is obtained from either implanted batteries or from an external transcutaneous
power source. Implanted batteries with an electronic device need to be replaced when they are
depleted. Replacement of implanted batteries requires frequent, costly surgeries with increased
risk of complications. Documented clinical experience with pacemakers and implanted
defibrillators highlight the limitations of implanted batteries [77]. The mean time to when
pacemaker battery replacement is needed is 8 years after the initial implantation [81]. Depletion
of implanted batteries is the reason for more than 70% of pacemaker replacement surgeries and
the complication rate after a replacement surgery is three times greater than that for the initial
implant [4]. For implanted defibrillators, patients require battery replacement surgery 3 to 4
years after initial implantation with costs up to $10,000 [5]. Currently there are two methods to
solve this problem, namely either the longevity of the power source or the ability to recharge
the batteries [16]. It is seen in [97] that 67 W of power is available for a 68-kg man walking
using the fall of the heel through a 5 cm distance. This result is promising given the relatively
large amount of available power compared to other biomechanical sources. A viable wearable
computer was made with Microchip Technology. This chip requires only 18 mW at 4 MHz and
0.1 mW at 32 kHz [97]. It is feasible to power these wearable devices by scavenging the
biomechanical energy. The energy harvesters for biomedical applications should meet the
requirements of low-frequency, high response for small input and small volume. The operating
frequency of body and organ motion normally locates the range from a few hertz up to a few
tens of hertz, which would be the design goal of the optimized resonating frequencies of the

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 17

energy harvesters [9]. Second, compared to some machine-mounted applications, a significant
variation of the motion amplitude and frequency possibly exists, so the energy harvesters have
a high response for wide range of input signals by structural design or dynamically tunable
mechanisms. Finally, size should be unobtrusive for implanted applications, with a volume of
1 cm3 being a reasonable limit [10].

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Energy harvesting is adopted in a lot of promising application fields. Conventional ways of
power supplies like batteries or wires are replaced by energy harvesting, saving resources like
material, manpower or expenses for maintenance or retrofit. Moreover, new applications
become feasible with energy harvesting like permanent monitoring systems for machines,
plants, or the human body. Present implementation scenarios differ significantly concerning the
properties of the employed ambient energy source and the requirements of the electrical
consumers. Not just the type of energy is different, but especially its parameters. Regarding the
power requirements of the application devices, these changes are significantly depending on the
type of technology employed. Furthermore, the transmission distance has an influence on the
power consumption. According to the expression ‘The exception proves the rule’ there might
exist a lot of special cases which were not discussed. The majority of the introduced and
discussed applications are not yet mass applications. They are niche market scenarios or pilot
and test installations. Due to the small device quantities required in these first applications, the
costs for energy harvesting generators and required materials are still high because a mass
fabrication is not yet established. So, only markets with low-cost pressure are suitable for such
initial applications. Furthermore, competing with batteries is still a problem, since the costs of
batteries are much smaller compared to energy harvesting transducers in a comparable power
range. The economic benefits of energy harvesting become obvious when the costs for battery
replacement or recharging must be considered as well. Thus, energy harvesting is the preferred
solution in applications where one single battery life of a non-rechargeable battery or one charge
cycle is not sufficient. The picture is different with applications or environments where batteries
are not really feasible. These are, for example, environments with harsh conditions like extreme
low or high temperatures or the employment of electronics in inaccessible or remote locations.
Here, energy harvesting can enable new applications and needs not compete with batteries; thus,
there is no price pressure. Increased users will increase the requested device quantity and
accelerate mass production with the expected fall of the material and generator cost. Large
quantities of energy harvesting devices are presently only sold in the building automation sector
and in the consumer market. In the consumer market, mainly solar cells are used for energy
harvesting. These devices entered the market many years ago and already achieved a remarkable
popularity suitable for mass production. Major research and development activities enhanced
the solar cells mainly for power grid supply a popular technology. Considering these two
successful mass-market applications of energy harvesting, it can be anticipated that the same
will happen with kinetic transducers and thermo-generators in these and other applications like
condition monitoring or structural health monitoring. Thus, it should be just a matter of time
that energy harvesting will enter more mass-market sectors and enable innovative and
promising self-powered microsystems. Knowledge of the subject and anticipation of its
presence in the near future seems to be a wise option.

Abhishek Pokhrel, BE4PE Energy harvesting technologies 18

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