Organic Chemistry - Some Basics Principles

and Techniques
Introduction
As we know, we come across different types of compounds in nature.
Some are man-made. Out of them, organic compounds also form one
of the categories.
COMPOUNDS
They are of mainly two types
• Inorganic: Obtained from Mineral.
(b) Organic: Obtained from plants and animal.
Organic compounds
• They play a vital role in our life.
• They constitute our body, our diet, our medicine etc.
• Earlier, it was thought the has made organic compounds are not
possible.
• Later, it was seen that preparation of these compounds are
possible. Almost 95% of organic compound are manmade
(prepared in laboratory).
Friedrich Wohler: -He gave a blow to vital force theory, as he
accidently prepared organic compound in laboratory: -
Organic compound is mainly formed of Carbon. They may be called
as Hydrocarbon (compound of Carbon &Hydrogen). In some
compounds, Hydrogen is replaced by other elements like N, S etc.
Therefore, we can define “Organic Chemistry is study of Hydrocarbon
& their derivatives”.
Unique properties of carbon
• TETRAVALENCY
It is a characteristic property of Carbon atom by virtue of which it can
form four covalent bonds.
Atomic Number =6
1s2, 2s2,2px1,2py2,2pz0
Valency =+4 or -4
It mainly forms covalent compounds.
• CATENATION
“The property of forming bonds with atoms of same element and
give rise to long chains, branched or un-branched chains.”
In 14th group the Carbon –Carbon bond requires bond dissociation
energy equal to 335 KJ. The Sulphur –Sulphur bond requires energy
in order of [Link], the maximum catenation is shown by carbon as
it forms strong bond with atom of its own kind.
IMPORTANT FEATURE OF π BONDS
1. In C2H4 , the two un-hybridized orbital forming bond are parallel
to each other. So, they restrict the molecule in planar shape.
2. Because of sidewise overlapping, rotation of one CH 2 group
with respect to other is hindered, as rotation will break bond.
Therefore, only 2 forms are possible.
3. For example: C2H2Cl2

(pi) bonds are more reactive sites, as they are placed above and
below the plane of bonding atoms. So, more exposed to attacking
agent.
Find

Write hybridization
Write hybridization

Write shapes

Problem 1:-
Q: Rewrite as bond line :
1.

2.

3.
4.

Branches of Organic Compounds

Functional groups
They are atom or group of atoms, that determine the characteristic
properties of organic compound.
• Alkene C = C
• Alkynes C = C
 • Arenes

Homologous series
It is defined as series of similarly, constituent compounds having
same functional group and same chemical properties, and they
differ by CH2 group and atomic mass by 14 a.m.u .
IUPAC system (Geneva system)
It is international union of pure & applied Chemistry. This system was
introduced in 1947 revised in [Link] to this name of
compound consist of 3 parts that is:
Prefix WordRoot Suffix
Word root:

Suffix:
Suffix two types:- 1. Primary (Indicates the bond)
2. Secondary (Indicates the functional group)
Primary Suffix
• Indicate the type of bond between Carbon atoms like:
• Single Bond(ane)
• Double Bond(ene)
• Triple Bond(yne)
• If two or three double or triple bond or present so, they are
named as di, tri, tert etc.
Secondary suffix
• Indicate the functional group
Note: While adding secondary suffix to primary suffix ‘e’ of primary
suffix is dropped, if sec suffix begins with vowel.
Prefix:
Indicate substituent present in compound.
They can be
• Alkyl group’s (which have one Hydrogen less than alkane).
Example:- CH3- methyl , C2H5 - Ethyl
• Functional group - If more than two functional groups are
present, than one is treated as main functional group and other
as substituent. The prefix used for functional groups are:
F = Fluoro
Cl = Chloro
Br = Bromo
I = Iodo
NO2+ = Nitro
NH2- = Amino
NO = Nitro
N=N = Diazo
OCH3 = Methoxy
OC2H5 = Ethoxy
OH = Hydroxy
Different Type of Organic Compounds
1. Hydrocarbon
They are of two types:
• Saturated
 • Unsaturated
Saturated: They are called as Alkanes (paraffins) with general formula
CnH2n+2
Unsaturated: They are also called as olefins. They may be -
• Alkenes (general formula CnH2n).
• Alkynes (general formula CnH2n-2.).
10 = If carbon atom is joined one other Carbo atom(primary)
20 = If carbon atom is joined two other Carbo atom(secondary)
30 = If carbon atom is joined three other Carbo atom(tertiary)
40 = If carbon atom is joined four other Carbo atom(quaternary)

Alkyl halides (Haloalkanes)

Like in CH4 the one Hydrogen atom is replaced by Halogen. So, it
becomes CH3Cl . The general name of it is Haloalkane.
Formula :- CnH2n+1(RX)
IUPAC and Common names of compounds
Example:

2. Alcohols CnH2n+1OH’
 2. Aldehyde (Alkanals) CnH2n+1 CHO
HCHO Methanal Formaldehyde
CH3CHO Ethanal Acetaldehyde
CH3CH2CHO Propanal propion Aldehyde
4. Ketone :CnH2n+1CO CnH2n+1
CH3-CO-CH3 Propanaone DiMethylKetone
CH3-CO=CH2CH3 Butanone EthylMethyl Ketone
4. Carboxylic acid: - CnH2n+1COOH

HCOOH = Methanoic Acid Formic Acid

CH3COOH = Ethanoic Acid Acetic Acid
4. Amines: - CnH2n+1NH2
CH3NH2 Methane-Amine MethylAmine
RULES FOR IUPAC
1. Select the longest continuous carbon chain.
2. Longest chain with maximum number of substituent is selected.
3. Numbering is done in such way that substituent gets the lowest
number.
4. It two substituent are present, than we follow as the lowest
sum rule.
 5. If the same subsequent appears twice or thrice then di, tri, or is
used.
6. If different substituent is present, than alphabetical order is
followed.
7. If double or triple bond is present in addition to substituent
then double or triple bond gets the lowest number.
8. If both double and triple bond are present, than lowest number
is given to double bond.
9. In IUPAC: Name is written in order-
Prefix... Word Root.... Primary Suffix..... Seconadry Suffix
In case of double & triple bond
1. Select chain that involves double or triple bond.
2. Suffix ene or yne are used.
3. Multiple bonds should get the lowest number.
4. If multiple bond occurs two or more, than prefix di, tri etc.
5. Double bond is given preference over triple bond.
RULES FOR NAMING ORGANIC COMPOUND WITH FUNCTIONAL
GROUP
1. Select longest chain containing functional group.
2. Numbering is done in such a way that Carbon atom with
functional group gets lowest number.
3. Rules for naming substituent are same.
4. The 2 or more functional groups are indicated by di, tri etc.
5. While numbering the preference is given as: -
Functional Group > Double Bond> Triple Bond> Side Chain
1. If different functional groups are present that preference for
considering main functional group is give as shown:
COOH > ester> acid halide>
amide>CN>CHO>C>OH>amines>ether
• One functional group is treated as main group.
• Other functional group (treated as substituent according to
preference)
PREFIX USED FOR SECONDARY FUNCTIONAL GROUP

Example:

NOMANCLATURE OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

Aromatic compounds are those which contain at least one benzene
ring.
BENZENE – Hexagon of Carbon atoms with 3 alternate double Bonds.
Three different forms in figure are:

Aryl group :- radicals obtained by removal of one or more H atom of

aromatic compounds.

Some common compound :

Rules
1. When benzene ring is used as substituent, it is named as phenyl
(ph).
2. Numbering can be done from any side.
3. Substituents are written in alphabetical order.

Write Structures of :
ISOMERISM
It is existence of compounds in two or more forms, having same
molecular formula but different physical and chemical properties.
It is basically of two types:
• Structural
• Stereoisomerism
Structural isomerism: Differ in arrangement of atoms within
molecule.
Stereoisomerism: Differ in arrangement of atom in space.
The structural isomerism type:
• Chain
• Position
• Functional
• Meta-merism
• Tauto-merism
The different types of stereoisomerism are:
• Geometrical
 • Optical
• conformational
Let us study first structural isomerism types :
1. Chain isomerism– The compounds that have same molecular
formula ,but different arrangement of atoms within the chain.

1. Position isomerism: The compounds with same molecular

formula, but differ in position of substituent, side chain or
functional groups.

3. Functional isomerism: The compounds with same molecular

formula but differ in type of functional group and also in
physical and chemical properties.
 3. Metamerism: The compounds that have same molecular
formula ,but differ in number of carbon atoms around
functional group.
It is shown by functional groups like ether, esters, ketones.

4. Tautomerism: In this simultaneous movement of π electron

cloud and Hydrogen take place. Most common tautomerism is
keto – enol tautomerism.

let us study stereo isomerism now

In it the compounds have same molecular formula , but different
arrangement of atoms in three-dimensional space.
It is of three types:
 1. Geometrical : It arises due to restricted rotation around C=C
bond.
Conditions required are :
1. Presence of C=C bond.
2. The two groups attached to carbon atoms must be different.

Examples:
 • As far as stability is concerned, more bulky is the group, more is
the Stearic hindrance.
• Stearic hindrance which creates obstruction in rotation
therefore, less is the stability.
But-2-ene> Pent-2-ene-Hex>3-ene
CONFORMATIONAL ISOMERISM: It exists in Alkanes (C-C). It is due to
full rotation around C-C single bond.
ELECTRON DISPLACEMENT IN COVALENT BONDS
Whenever any reaction occurs, old bonds break and new bonds are
formed. This formation is due to shifting of electrons. There are four
types of electron displacements:
1. Inductive effect
It is a permanent effect that arises when some electron releasing or
withdrawing group is attached to chain of alkane.
Example:- C-C-C-C-C1-X
• If X is electronegative, it will attract the shared pair electrons
more towards itself. As a result, X will acquire partial negative
charge and C1 will acquire partial positive charge.
 • Now this positive charge of C1 will attract electrons of C 1 – C2 As
a result, some of the positive charge on C1 will be reduced and
on C2 it will develop.
• This effect happens only till 4thcarbon as after 4th carbon the
magnitude of charge is almost nil.
• So, we can define it as “the displacement of electrons along the
saturated carbon chain due to presence of polar covalent bond
at the end of the chain. “
It is of two types
• -I effect
• +I effect

-I effect –It is shown when electron withdrawing group is attached to

the carbon chain.
• Please note: More is the electron withdrawing, more is the -I
effect.
• Order of groups in increasing strength towards -I effect:
NO2 > CN> COOH > COO> F> Cl> Br> I
+I effect - It is shown when electron releasing group is attached to
carbon chain .
Example – Alkyl groups.

• “More the number of alkyl groups , more is the +I effect.”

 • Order of strength: 30> 20> 10
2. Electrometric effect
2.
o It is a temporary effect that is shown in the presence of
attacking agent.
o It is shown by multiple bonded systems like C=C , C=O
o It is of two 2 types :
+E effect -
It is that effect when electron of π bond is transferred to atoms to
which attacking agent attaches itself.

-E effect –

“It is that effect when π electrons are transferred to

atom other
than the atom, to which attacking agent finally attaches
itself.”

3. Resonance
It occurs due to delocalisation of π electron cloud so as to get best
structure as compared to other structure.
Example: Structure of CO2

But, it was seen that Bond Length of that CO bond is not same as that
of C=O. It lies in between C-C and C O. So, as to explain the
Resonating structures were proposed.

Resonance is best seen in Benzene: It is also called as Mesomeric

effect .It arises due to polarity developed in Benzene ring due to
delocalisation of π electron.
+ R effect -It is shown when electron donating group is attached to
benzene ring. Like

If any positively charged group approaches it attacks at Ortho and

Para positions.
-R effect – Shown by electron withdrawing group when attached to
benzene [Link]:
HYPER CONJUGATION
It is like resonance but the difference is that there is no bond present
from where the electrons are shifted.
The Condition required: It arises when = and – bond is at adjacent
position.
Example: –:

• “More the terminal Hydrogen , more is the Hyper-conjugated

structure.”
• We can define it as interaction between π electrons and
adjacent bond of substituent group attached to it.
• It is also called as Baker Nathan and non-bond resonance.
• It can explain stability of Alkylated alkenes.

Fundamental concepts of organic reactions

Whenever a chemical reaction takes place the old bonds break and
new bonds of products is formed.
 • Breaking of bond --- fission.
• Formation of bonds --- products formed.
• Bond fission is of 2 types:
• Homolytic
• Heterolytic

Homolytic fission: The bond breaks in such a way that each electron
of shared pair is taken equally by each atom.

Heterolytic fission: The bond break in such a way, that one species
takes
both the electrons of shared pair and other remain deficient of
shared pair.

REACTION INTERMEDIATES
Reaction intermediates are free carbocation and carbon anion.
• Free Radical: It formed as a result of homolytic fission. Due to
this extra electron, they are quite reactive.

They are of 4 types:

Stability of these radicals:
30> 20> 10> CH3

We can explain their stability by :

30> 20> 10> CH3
It is explained on the basis of hyper configuration: More the alkyl
groups , more is the number of hydrogen and more are the
conjugated structures .Hence, more is the stability.

• Carbocation: It is formed as a result of hydrolytic fission. It is

the Carbon with six electron and a positive charge.

Types of Carbocations :
Stability can be explained on the basis of +I effect –More the alkyl
groups , more they release electrons and more the positive charge
gets neutralized .Hence, more is the stability.

Carboanion
1. They are Carbon with 8 e-.
2. They are Electron rich.
3. They act as Lewis base.
4. They are Formed as a result of heterolytic fission.
Types of Carboanions:

• More the alkyl group,more they release electrons and more

intense the charge [Link], least will be the stability.
Attacking agents
When the reaction occurs, attacking agent attacks and the product is
formed.
Type of attacking agents: They can be
• Free radical : With unpaired electron
• Nucleophile: With extra electrons. They also act as Lewis base
and does Nucleus love. They are either:
Neutral with Lone pair: H2O , NH3 , NH2 , R – O – H , R – O - R
Negatively Charged: CN- , X- , OH-
• Electrophile: With Positive charge has less electrons and act as
Lewis acids. They are either :
Neutral: BF3 , BCl3 , AlCl3 etc .
Positively charged: NH4+ , NO2+ , H3 O+ etc .
Attacking agents
When the reaction occurs, attacking agent attacks and the product is
formed.
Type of attacking agents: They can be
• Free radical : With unpaired electron
• Nucleophile: With extra electrons. They also act as Lewis base
and does Nucleus love. They are either:
Neutral with Lone pair: H2O , NH3 , NH2 , R – O – H , R – O - R
Negatively Charged: CN- , X- , OH-
• Electrophile: With Positive charge has less electrons and act as
Lewis acids. They are either :
Neutral: BF3 , BCl3 , AlCl3 etc .
Positively charged: NH4+ , NO2+ , H3 O+ etc .
Types of organic reactions
The organic reactions are of basic 4 types as explained:
• Substitution reaction: A reaction is which atom or group of
atoms are substituted by other atom.
• Addition Reaction: In this multiple bond gets converted to
single bond due to addition of some atoms.

• Elimination reaction: It is the reaction in which a small

molecule is released. It mostly occurs in presence of alcoholic
KOH. It is of different types but most common type is Beta –
elimination.
 • Rearrangement: In this the isomers are formed.

Methods of purification of organic compounds:

The various methods involved in the purification are:
• Sublimation
• Crystallisation
• Distillation
• Differential extraction
• Chromatography
Sublimation: It is the process in which solid directly changes to
gaseous form on heating and on cooling the gaseous state convert in
to solid state.
The idea behind using this technique is to separate substance,that
show sublimation from substance that do not sublime.
Crystallisation: This method is based on the difference in the
solubility of compound and the impurities in the suitable solvent.
• The impure compound in dissolved in a solvent in which it is
sparingly soluble at room temperature, but appreciably soluble
at higher temperature.
• The solution is concentrated to get saturated solution.
• On cooling the solution pure compound crystallizes out and is
removed by filtration.
• The filtrate contains impurities and small quantity of compound
.
Distillation : This method is used to separate volatile liquids from non
volatile impurities and also the liquids that have difference in their
boiling points .
• The liquids with different boiling point vaporise at different
temperatures .Then these vapours are cooled and the liquids
formed are collected separately.
Like chloroform and aniline can be easily separated by this technique
as both have different boiling points.
For this technique:
(i) Take the mixture in a distillation flask. Fit the flask with a
thermometer.
(ii) Arrange the apparatus as shown in the figure.
(iii) Heat the mixture slowly keeping a close watch at the
thermometer and observe what [Link] vapours of one
component with lower boiling point can be seen rising up in the
distillation flask with the increase in temperature.
(ii) These vapours get condensed in the condenser and can be
collected (as pure liquid distillate) from the condenser outlet.
Fractional distillation: This method is used for those liquids which
have nearly same boiling points that is the difference in their boiling
point is not much .So, as they have same boiling points. Therefore
,liquids from both liquids condense and formed at same time.
• In this technique ,vapours of liquid mixture are passed through
a fractionating column before condensation .This fractionating
column is fitted over round bottom flask.
• Vapours of liquid with higher boiling point condense before the
vapours of liquid with lower boiling point.
• On reaching the top, the vapours become pure in low boiling
component and passed through the condenser. The pure liquid
 is collected in receiver .Each successive condensation and
vaporisation unit in the fractionating column is called
theoretical plate. Example: separation of different components
of crude oil
Distillation under reduced pressure: This method is used to purify
liquids having very high boiling points and those which decompose at
or below their boiling points.
• Such liquids are made to boil at a temperature lower than their
boiling points, by reducing the pressure on their surface. A
liquid boils at a temperature, at which its vapour pressure is
equal to external pressure .The pressure is reduced with the
help of water pump. Example glycerol can be separated from
spent-lye by this method
Steam distillation: This technique is applied to separate substances
which are steam volatile and are immiscible in water.
• In steam distillation steam from a steam generator is passed
through a heated flask containing the liquid to be distilled.
• The mixture of steam and the volatile organic compound is
condensed and collected. Then compound is later separated
from water using separating funnel.
• In it the liquid boils ,when sum of vapour pressures due to
organic liquid and due to water becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
i.e. =P1 +p2

• Since p1 is lower than p, the organic liquid vaporises at lower

temperature than its boiling point.
Example: Aniline and water can be separated by this method
Differential extraction: When the organic compound is present in an
aqueous medium, then it is separated by shaking it with an organic
solvent in which it is more soluble than in water .
• The organic solvent and the aqueous solution should be
immiscible with each other .So, that they form two distinct
layers which can be separated with separating funnel.
• The organic solvent is later removed by distillation or by
evaporation.
Chromatography: It is a technique used to separate mixtures in to
their components, purify. Compounds which can be solid or liquid
and also test the purity of compounds.
• In this technique the mixture of substances are applied on to a
stationary phase .Then a pure solvent or a mixture of solvents is
allowed to move slowly over stationary phase .The components
of mixture gets gradually separated from one another .The
moving phase is mobile phase .
The chromatography is classified into two categories:
• Adsorption chromatography
• Partition chromatography
Adsorption chromatography: It is based on the facts that different
compounds are adsorbed on adsorbent at different degrees.
The commonly used adsorbents are silica gel and alumina.
• When a mobile phase is allowed to move over a stationary
phase the components of mixture move by varying distances
over a stationary phase.
Depending upon differential adsorption the two types of
techniques are:
• Column chromatography
 • Thin layer chromatography
Column chromatography: It involves separation of mixture over a
column of adsorbent packed in a glass tube.
• The column is fitted with a stop cock at its lower end .The
mixture adsorbed on adsorbent is placed on the top of the
adsorbent column packed in a glass tube.
• An appropriate eluant which is liquid or a mixture of liquids is
allowed to flow down the column slowly.
• Depending upon the degree to which the compounds are
adsorbed complete separation takes place.
• The most readily adsorbed substance is retained near the top
and the other comes down to various distances in the column.
Thin layer chromatography: This is another type of adsorption which
involves separation of substances of mixture over a thin layer of
adsorbent coated on glass tube.
• A thin layer of adsorbent is spread over a glass plate of suitable
size. The plate is known as thin layer chromatography plate.
• The solution of mixture to be separated is applied as a small
spot about 2 cm above one end of the TLC plate.
• Then glass plate is then placed in a closed jar containing the
eluant.
• As the eluant rises up ,the plate the different components of
mixture move along with eluant to different distances
depending on their degree of adsorption .Hence, separation
takes place .
• The relative adsorption of each component of mixture is
expressed in terms of retardation factor (Rf).
 • The spots of the compounds are visible on TLC plate due to
their original color. The spots which are not visible to eye but
fluoresce in ultraviolet light can be detected by putting the
plate under ultra violet light.
Position chromatography: It is based on the continuous differential
partitioning of components of a mixture between stationary and
mobile phases.
• Paper chromatography: Is a type of partition chromatography
.In this a special paper called chromatography paper is used .It
contains water trapped in it which acts as a stationary phase.
(i)In this we take a thin strip of filter paper (25cm x 5cm approx).
(ii) Draw a line on it using a pencil, approximately 3cm above the
lower edge.
(iii) Put a small drop of solution of mixture .Lets say ink from a sketch
pen or fountain pen) at the centre of the line. Let the ink dry.
(iv) Attach the paper strip on the thread with the help of cello tape.
(v) Lower the filter paper strip into a large size gas jar in such a way
that the drop of ink on the paper is just above the water level as
shown in the figure [2.8 (b)]. Adjust the thread and fix it on the sides
of gas jar with the help of cello tape.
(vi)Cover the gas jar with a lid and leave it undisturbed.
(vii) Watch carefully as the water rises up on the filter paper.
(viii) Remove the filter paper strip dry it and observe.
The paper retains different components according to their differing
partition in the two phases .the paper strip is
called chromatogram. The spots of separated coloured compounds
are visible at different heights from the position of initial spot.
Detection of carbon and hydrogen:
They are detected by heating the compound wit copper oxide.
Carbon present in the compound is oxidised to Carbon-dioxide
(tested with Lime water) and Hydrogen to Water(tested with
anhydrous Copper sulphate ).

Detection of other elements : Nitrogen ,Sulphur, Halogen

,Phosphorous presence in organic compound are detected by
Lasagne’s test .The elements present in the compound are converted
into covalent form in to an ionic form by fusing the compound with
Sodium metal .

Test for Nitrogen : The Sodium fusion extract is boiled with Ferrous
Sulphate and then acidified with concentrated Sulphuric acid . The
formation of Prussian Blue colour confirms the presence of Nitrogen .

Test for Sulphur : The Sodium fusion extract is acidified with Acetic
acid with Lead acetate is added to it .A Black precipitate of Lead
Sulphide indicates the presence of Sulphur.
S2- + Pb2+ --> PbS
Sulphide Lead Lead Sulphide
On treating Sodium fusion extract with Sodium Nitro Prusside, the
Violet colour appears that confirms Sulphur .

Test for halogens: The Sodium fusion extract is acidified with Nitric
acid and then treated with Silver Nitrate.
• A White precipitate soluble in Ammonium hydroxide shows the
presence of Chlorine.
• A Yellow precipitate soluble in Ammonium hydroxide shows the
presence of Bromine.
• A Yellow precipitate not soluble in Ammonium hydroxide shows
the presence of Iodine.
• X- + Ag+ --> AgX
• Halide Silver ion SilverHalide
Test for phosphorous: The compound is heated with Sodium
Peroxide. The Phosphorus gets oxidised to Phosphate .Then the
solution is boiled with Nitric acid and then treated with Ammonium
mol bate .A Yellow precipitate indicates phosphorous.
Quantitative analysis
• Carbon and hydrogen: Both of them are estimated in one
experiment. A known mass of Organic compound is burnt in
presence of excess of Oxygen and Copper (ii)oxide . Carbon and
Hydrogen both are oxidised to form Carbon dioxide and Water.

The mass of Water produced is determined by passing a mixture

through U-tube containing anhydrous Calcium chloride. Carbon
dioxide is absorbed in another U-tube containing solution of
Potassium hydroxide. The increase in mass of calcium chloride and
Potassium hydroxide gives the amount of Carbon dioxide and water
.From it the percentage of C and H can be calculated.
Let the mass of organic compound = mg
Mass of water = m1
Mass of carbodioxide =m2
% of C = (12 x m2 x 100)/(44x)m
% of H = (2 x m1 x 100)/(18x)m
Nitrogen : There are two methods for estimation of Nitrogen :
• Dumas method
• Kjeldahl’s method
Dumas method: In this Nitrogen containing compound is heated with
Copper oxide in an atmosphere of Carbon dioxide,yields free
Nitrogen in addition to Carbon dioxide and water .

The Nitrogen oxides formed are reduced to Nitrogen by passing the

gaseous mixture over a heated Copper gauze. The mixture of gases so
produced is collected over aqueous Potassium hydroxide which
absorbs Carbon dioxide. Nitrogen is collected in the upper part of
graduated tube.
Volume of N at STP = (P1V1 x 273)/(760 x T1)
Kjeldahl’s method: The compound containing Nitrogen is heated
with concentrated Sulphuric acid . The Nitrogen in the compound
gets converted to Ammonium sulphate. The resulting acid mixture is
then heated with excess Sodium hydroxide .The liberated Ammonia
gas is absorbed in excess of standard solution of Sulphuric acid. The
amount of Ammonia produced is determined by estimating the
amount of Sulphuric acid consumed in the reaction.

• Halogens : For them we have Carious method. A known mass of

organic compound is heated with fuming Nitric acid in the
presence of Silver nitrate contained in a hard glass tube known
as Carious tube in a furnace.
The Carbon and Hydrogen present in compound are oxidised to
Carbon dioxide and water. The Halogens present forms the Silver
halide .It is filtered, washed, dried and weighed.
Let the mass of organic compound = mg
Mass of AgX = m1 g
1 mole of AgX contains 1 mole of X
% of Halogen = (Atomic mass of X x m1 x 100)/(molecular mass
of AgX) x m
• Sulphur: A known mass of organic compound is heated in
Carious tube with Sodium peroxide or fuming Nitric acid.
Sulphur present is oxidised to Sulphuric acid .It is precipitated
with Barium sulphate by adding excess of Barium chloride
solution in water .The precipitate is filtered ,washed and dried
and weighed .
Let the mass of organic compound = mg
Let the mass of ammonium phosphor molybate = m 1 g
% of Sulphur = (32 x m1 x 100)/(233) x m
• Phosphorous: A known mass of organic compound is heated
with fuming Nitric acid. As a result Phosphorous gets oxidised
 to Phosphoric acid. It is then precipitated with Ammonium
molybdate .
Let the mass of organic compound = mg
Let the mass of ammonium phosphor molybate = m 1 g
% of Phosphorous = (62 x m1 x 100)/(222) x m
• Oxygen: A definite mass of organic compound is decomposed in
stream of Nitrogen gas .The mixture of gaseous products
containing oxygen is passed over red hot coke when all the
oxygen present is converted into Carbon monoxide .Then this
mixture is passed over Iodine pent oxide, when CO is oxidised
to Carbon dioxide producing Iodine.