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for \z-al lim inf a,+lim inf 6, for {a,} and {b,} sequen
4. Show that lim inf a, < lim SUP 4 for any
5. If {a,} is a convergent sequence in R and a
inf a, = lim sup a,.
6. Find the radius of convergence for cach 0
utline of the proof,
re Ja,ls"+¥ lals*
roof can ea
@ Sav, aces) Sais a0 LH
7, Show that the radius of convergence o}
mt
is 1, and discuss convergence fo
efficient of this series is not (— 1)
§2. Analytic functions
In this section an u Elementary Properties and Examples of Analytic Functions
“The following was surely predicted by the reader.
2.2 Proposition. Uf fi GC is differentiable at a point a in G then f is
‘continuous at a.
Proof. In fact,
lim [f)-F0)| = [im
| Limenal] = Fiero 0
123 Definition. A function f: GC is analytic if fis continuously differen-
tiable on G.
it follows readily, as in calculus, that sums and products of functions
analytic on G are analytic. Also, if ‘fand g are analytic on G and G, is the
set of points in G where g doesn’t vanish, then f/g is analytic on G,.
Since constant functions and the function 2 are clearly analytic it
follows that all rational functions are analytic on the complement of the
set of zeros of the denominator.
Moreover, the usual laws for differentiating sums, products, and
quotients remain valid.
fain Rule. Let f and g be analytic on G and © respectively and suppose
4(G)e2. Then gef is analytic on G and
(gef¥)=8' FFE)
for all z in G.
Proof. Fix zq in G and choose a positive number r such that B(zZ9;1)< G.
We must show that if 0<|f,| Therelone
limhy '(g°f Zot h,)— 82S Zo] =0= 28'S Ed)S Zo):
The general case easily follows from the preceding wo. Il
og Later to define the derivative, the function was assumed to be defined
onan open set. IF we say fis analytic on a set and A is not oP nor
Fis analytic on an open set containing A.
Acalytic fi
Perth
readers,
courses
certain
already
tion of
the tw
Sunctiz
is no Analytic functions i
could adopt the same procedure as before
Series expansion of the real logarithm about some
only gives log z in some disk. The method of defining the
logarithm as the integral of r~" from 1 to £, x > 0, is a possibility, but
Proves to be risky and unsatisfying in the complex case. Also, since e* is not
{one-one map as in the real case, log z cannot be defined as the inverse of e*.
We can, however, do something similar,
We want to define log w so that
Now since e* # 0 for any
and w 0; if z
Hence
27
Now let us define log z. We
and let log = be the power
point, But 1
satisfies w = e* when z = log w.
we cannot define log 0. Therefore, suppose e* = w
x+y then jw] = e* and y = arg w-+2nk, for some k.
{log |w|+-i(arg w-+2nk): k is any integer}
is the solution set for e* = w, (Note that log [vr is the usual real logarithm.)
2.18 Definition. If G is an open connected set in © and
tinuous function such that z =
the logarithm.
Notice that 0 ¢ G.
Suppose f is a given branch of the logarithm on the connected set G
and suppose & is an integer. Let g(z) = /(2)+2nki. Then exp g(c) = exp f(z)
= 0 g is also a branch of the logarithm. Conversely, if f and g are both
branches of log z then for each z in G, f(:) = g(z)-+2rki for some integer k,
where k depends on z. Does the same k work for each z in G? The answer
GC isacon-
exp f(z) for all z in G then fis a branch of
yes. In fact, if A(z) = Ute) then h is continuous on G and h(G)
< Z, the integers. Since G is connected, i(G) must also be connected
(Theorem I. 5.8). Hence there is a kin Z with f(z)-+2nki = g(z) for all + in
G. This gives
2.19 Proposition. 1/ G < C is open and connected and f is a branch of log 2
on G then the totality of branches of log z are the functions f(z) +2nki, k e 2.
Now let us manufacture at least one branch of log z on some open
1. Let
connected se Soe ae
that is, “slit” the plane along the negative real axis. Clearly G is connected
and each z in G can be uniquely represented by z = |z|e” where —2 < 0 < »,
For @ in this range, define f(re"*) = log r-+i8. We leave the proof of con-
tinuity to the reader (Exercise 9). It follows that fis a branch of the logarithm
on G.
Is fanalytic? To answer this we first prove a general fact.
20 Proposition. Let G and 2 be open subsets of C. Suppose that f: G > ©
se ee te contnina factors such that AG} CO tad OH
for all z in G. If gis differentiable and g'(z) # 0, f ts differentiable and
: 1
fe - Elementary Properties and Examples of Analytic Functions
Ig is analytic, fis analytic
Proof. Fix a in Gand let he such that h # O-and athe G. Hence a =
g(M@) and ah = g(fla+h)) implies f(a) # fla+n). Also
1 slab O)—a1fla)
h
_ slat) 81), lath) fa)
~ fla+h) Sa) h
as h-»0 is, of course, 1; so the limit
= 0
Now the limit of the left hand
of the right hand side exists, Since im [f(a+4)—/0)
s(fla+)-@ MD _ wpa,
tw peiy=say e
“Hence we get that
Slay
‘i
jin h
exists since ¢'( 0, and 1 = g'(fa)f"(a).
Th ER ‘a ig alytic then g’ is continuous and this
gives that fis analyt
2.21 Corollary, A branch of the logarithm function is analytic and its derivative
is .
We designate the particular branch of the logarithm defined above
on C—{z: z s 0) to be the principal branch of the logarithm, If we w rite
fog 2 as a function we will always take it to be the principal branch of the
Jogarithm unless otherwise stated.
Iffis.a branch of the logarithm on an open connected set G and if b in ©
is fixed then define g: G-> € by g(z) = exp (bf(2)). Ib is an integer, then
(2) = 2°. In this manner we define a branch of z*, b in C, for an open con-
nected set on which there is a branch of log z. If we write g(z) = 2" as a
function we will always understand that z* = exp (b log 2) where log 2 is
the principal branch of the logarithm; z* is analytic since log = is.
As is evident from the considerations just concluded, connectedness
plays an important role in analytic function theory. For example, Proposition
2.10 is false unless G is connected, This is analogous to the role played by
intervals in calculus. Because of this it is convenient to introduce the term
“region.” A region is an open connected subset of the plane.
This section concludes with a discussion of the Cauchy-Riemann equa-
tions. Let f: G > C be analytic and let u(x, y) = Re flx-+iy), ox, y) = Im
M+iy) for x-+iy in G. Let us evaluate the limit
in two different ways. First let A 0 through real values of h. For h #0
and A real we get a
‘Analytic fanctions
4
tic Functions
hi, Yes, »)
Hence a = ithe)
Letting 4» 0 gives a
az = (3)
Now let > 0 through purely imaginary values; that is, for h # 0 ang
A real,
the Fimit 5
; Sle+ih)-f@) YY ole yA obx, y) ©
th A
Thus,
‘ x9) + Ze»)
223 LO = 1G + OD
Equating the real and imaginary parts of (2.22) and (2.23) we get th
Cauchy-Riemann equations
this 2" = 7
be Suppose that w and v haye continuous second partial derivatives (we will
eventually show that they are infinitely differentiable). Differentiating the
Cauchy-Riemann equations again we get
rc av
” iyex
ae Hence,
er, then 2.25
en con
is Any function with continuous second derivatives satisfying (2.25) 18 said ©
tarmonic. In a similar fashion, ¢ is also harmonic. We will study
a harmomic functions in Chapter X.
sition ¢ a @ be a region in the plane and fet w and v be functions defined 9
mate a= oo partial derivatives. Furthermore, suppose that w and ©
term showa to be analytic mG Toso Ata) uta) + to) then f ean te
‘a : o this, let sex tiv © G ane
Be Glthmstite B(O.+) then le + © G and let B(2;7)
«In Wrtsy4)— -
JtO- U5. 3) = Lehre, p44 Mar hnlaplcsennmen
Applying the mean val
Yatiable 10 each of these — for the
BO; 1) numbers s
derivative of a function of om
andy, sock nate exRressions, yields for each sit &
os Sen fil isl and je} « (ej and
5,73 mut, ype
oH tle yt)
