lubricants

Review
Surface Properties and Tribological Behavior of Additively
Manufactured Components: A Systematic Review
Christian Orgeldinger * , Armin Seynstahl , Tobias Rosnitschek and Stephan Tremmel

Engineering Design and CAD, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany;
[email protected] (A.S.); [email protected] (T.R.);
[email protected] (S.T.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Innovative additive manufacturing processes for resilient and sustainable production will
become even more important in the upcoming years. Due to the targeted and flexible use of materials,
additive manufacturing allows for conserving resources and lightweight design enabling energy-
efficient systems. While additive manufacturing processes were used in the past several decades
mainly for high-priced individualized components and prototypes, the focus is now increasingly
shifting to near-net-shape series production and the production of spare parts, whereby surface
properties and the tribological behavior of the manufactured parts is becoming more and more
important. Therefore, the present review provides a comprehensive overview of research in tribology
to date in the field of additively manufactured components. Basic research still remains the main
focus of the analyzed 165 papers. However, due to the potential of additive manufacturing processes
in the area of individualized components, a certain trend toward medical technology applications
can be identified for the moment. Regarding materials, the focus of previous studies has been on
metals, with stainless steel and titanium alloys being the most frequently investigated materials.
On the processing side, powder bed processes are mainly used. Based on the present literature
research, the expected future trends in the field of tribology of additively manufactured components
can be identified. In addition to further basic research, these include, above all, aspects of process
optimization, function integration, coating, and post-treatment of the surfaces.

Keywords: additive manufacturing; 3D printing; lightweight design; surface; tribology

Citation: Orgeldinger, C.; Seynstahl,
A.; Rosnitschek, T.; Tremmel, S.
Surface Properties and Tribological
Behavior of Additively
Manufactured Components: A 1. Introduction
Systematic Review. Lubricants 2023, The necessity to minimize used resources and reduce energy consumption drives
11, 257. https://doi.org/ today’s product development, with an overreaching goal toward an industrial green
10.3390/lubricants11060257 transition. A significant share of global energy consumption is attributed to loss due to
Received: 24 April 2023 wear and friction [1], which reflects the importance of tribology in nearly every sector of
Revised: 2 June 2023 technical products. Accordingly, research on minimizing friction is inevitable within the
Accepted: 7 June 2023 context of a green transition, thus sounding the bell for the golden age of tribology [2].
Published: 10 June 2023 Furthermore, to reduce resource consumption, in the first place, structural optimiza-
tion tools are common practice to determine the best material distribution within a given
design space under predefined loads, leading to bioinspired designs, which have yet to
be materialized in the physical world [3,4]. Additive manufacturing (AM) provides this
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. needed capability to directly manufacture digital parts that are decentralized and all over
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
the world; therefore, it can be also considered the physical arm of digitalization. Its objective
This article is an open access article
under the umbrella of a green transition is to create optimized products with minimized
distributed under the terms and
material effort. Since its development in the early 1980s, AM evolved from the rapid proto-
conditions of the Creative Commons
typing of visual aids to the direct manufacturing of complex end-use parts [5,6]. With the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
recent but continuously increasing additively manufactured parts used in technical systems,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
questions about their tribological behavior are on the rise as well. Thus, the understanding

Lubricants 2023, 11, 257. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants11060257 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/lubricants

Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 2 of 43

of synergies between tribology and AM can pave the way for novel solutions to address
future techno-societal challenges.
To pave the way for a better understanding of interactions and synergies of tribology
and AM, a more detailed analysis of the used AM techniques, materials, and fields of
application is essential. As other reviews focus solely on metals [7], or laser-based AM
methods [8], a global and systematic overview is missing. Accordingly, this contribution
summarizes the current trends of materials and applications in AM with respect to tribology.
Thereby, this contribution differentiates between studies primarily focusing on the part’s
surface and studies with a distinct link to tribological behavior. Within this context, the
following questions are addressed in particular:
• Which materials have already been investigated?
• Which AM machines were mostly used?
• Is the conducted work related to basic research or specific applications?
Thus, the interested reader shall be provided with a high-level understanding of
the capabilities of current developments in AM for specific materials with respect to
tribological applications.

2. Methodology
The systematic literature survey followed the updated Prisma statement [9] and
used the Web of Knowledge database (Clarivate Analytics, London, UK). The search was
restricted to the English language only, and the time span was between January 2001 and
September 2022. During the search, the following queries were used:
• Tribology and additive manufacturing;
• Friction and additive manufacturing;
• Wear and additive manufacturing;
• Surface roughness and additive manufacturing;
• Surface characterization and additive manufacturing;
• Bio-tribology and additive manufacturing.
Where applicable, British and American English spelling variants of the queries were
used. The PRISMA flowchart of the systematic protocol for the article collection is presented
in Figure 1a.
The excluded records were not in the English language or out of scope (for instance,
friction stir welding). In addition, articles without a digital origin identifier (DOI) were
not considered in this review. Starting from 2011, a total of 293 records were identified,
from which 167 were included in this synthesis. The number of records slowly increased
between 2011 and 2017. Between 2001 and 2010, no contributions were found that met the
search criteria. Since 2018, the number of records rapidly increased and doubled in the last
year, as shown in Figure 1b. Accordingly, 36.9% of the analyzed articles were published
between January and September 2022. To set these numbers into a wider frame, namely
the topic “tribology” in general, publications per year averaged about 563 between 2011
and 2019 and nearly tripled, to 1431 publications per year, between 2020 and 2022. For
the publications included in this study, an average of 5.5 articles per year were published
between 2011 and 2019, which increased by a factor of nine to 46 publications between 2020
and 2022. Accordingly, the research activities revolving around the topic “tribology and
AM” increased significantly stronger as in “tribology” in general.
This enormous growth of interest can be attributed to the emerging maturity of
manufacturing processes, which allow for relatively robust products suitable for serial
parts. In addition, material costs in general significantly increased in 2022, which motivated
researchers to investigate the use of additively manufactured lightweight components
to save costs. Furthermore, AM strengthens companies’ resilience and enables flexible
adaptions to political or societal crises in general. Hence, these three pillars foster the
necessity to assess the tribological behavior of additively manufactured parts that can be
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 3 of 43

Lubricants 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW

clearlyaligned with the doubling of published research between 2021 and the first 3three
of 42
quartiles of 2022.

Figure1.1.PRISMA
Figure PRISMAprotocol
protocolof ofthe
theconducted
conductedsystematic
systematicsearch
search(a)
(a)and
andnumber
numberofofpublications
publicationsper
per
year(b),
year (b),clustered
clusteredbased
basedon onmain
maincategories
categories(c),
(c),and
andpublications
publicationsassigned
assignedto
totribology
tribologyclustered
clustered
accordingto
according tothe
thematerial
materialofofthe
theAM
AMcomponent
component(d).(d).

Thisqualitative
For enormousand growth of interest
quantitative can be attributed
analyses, to the
the included emerging
articles werematurity of man-
further divided
ufacturing
into two main processes, which
categories: allow for
“surface” andrelatively robust
“tribology” products
(Figure 1c). suitable for serial parts.
In addition,
Within the material
surface costs in general
category, significantly
all the increased
clustered articles in 2022,deal
primarily which
withmotivated re-
the surface
properties
searchers of to additively
investigatemanufactured parts, without
the use of additively a distinct link
manufactured to tribological
lightweight behavior.
components to
Since this is Furthermore,
save costs. not the key aspect
AM of the recent review,
strengthens this category
companies’ resiliencewas
andrestricted to qualitative
enables flexible adap-
synthesis only. The
tions to political remaining
or societal 105inarticles
crises general.were subjected
Hence, to quantitative
these three synthesis
pillars foster and
the necessity
clustered
to assess based on the materials
the tribological behaviorused, which were
of additively divided into
manufactured thethat
parts subcategories of
can be clearly
polymers,
aligned withmetals, and ceramics/cermets,
the doubling as presented
of published research betweenin Figure 1d.the first three quartiles
2021 and
of 2022.
For qualitative and quantitative analyses, the included articles were further divided
into two main categories: “surface” and “tribology” (Figure 1c).
Within the surface category, all the clustered articles primarily deal with the surface
properties of additively manufactured parts, without a distinct link to tribological behav-
ior. Since this is not the key aspect of the recent review, this category was restricted to
 Lubricants 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 42

qualitative synthesis only. The remaining 105 articles were subjected to quantitative syn-
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257
thesis and clustered based on the materials used, which were divided into the subcatego-
4 of 43
ries of polymers, metals, and ceramics/cermets, as presented in Figure 1d.

3. Surface
3. Surface
This first section provides a precise overview of research dealing with the surface of
This
additivelyfirst section provides
manufactured a precise
parts, with no overview
primaryoflink
research dealing with
to tribological the surface
behavior. of
Accord-
additively manufactured parts, with no primary link to tribological behavior. Accordingly,
ingly, the objectives of the reviewed research papers focused on surface quality and were
the objectives
clustered offive
into the reviewed
categoriesresearch
(Figure papers
2). focused on surface quality and were clustered
into five categories (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Publications (n = 62) attributed to the surface category clustered into five categories.
Figure 2. Publications (n = 62) attributed to the surface category clustered into five categories.
In total, 62 articles were identified for the qualitative analysis, within which 18 ar-
ticles In total,to
belong 62the
articles werepredicting
category identified for the qualitative
or measuring analysis, within
the roughness. which 18 the
In particular, arti-
cles belong to the
non-destructive category predicting
measurement or measuring
or modeling, the and
simulation, roughness. In particular,
prediction of roughnessthe non-
can
be key aspects
destructive of quality assurance
measurement or modeling,and simulation,
help to leverage the full potential
and prediction of additive
of roughness can be
manufacturing. Therefore,
key aspects of quality 10 articles
assurance anddealing
help towith metalthe
leverage additive manufacturing
full potential weremanu-
of additive iden-
tified. Interestingly,
facturing. Therefore, an10
equal number
articles of articles
dealing dealing
with metal with the
additive relatively new
manufacturing wire-arc
were identi-
additive manufacturing
fied. Interestingly, (WAAM)
an equal [10–14]
number and more
of articles conventional
dealing with thelaser powder
relatively newbedwire-arc
fusion
processes for metal (LPBF-M)
additive manufacturing [15–19]
(WAAM) couldand
[10–14] be identified. From thelaser
more conventional analyzed
powderresearch, the
bed fusion
use of machine learning in roughness prediction should be highlighted.
processes for metal (LPBF-M) [15–19] could be identified. From the analyzed research, the Lu and Shi [16]
used
use ofa design-of-experiment approachprediction
machine learning in roughness with a central
should composite design Lu
be highlighted. for and
predicting
Shi [16]
surface 2
R of 74.36%.
used a roughness in LPBF-M, approach
design-of-experiment which led with
to anaaccuracy
central composite Furthermore,
design Kumar
for predicting sur-
and
faceJain [10] deployed
roughness a k-nearest
in LPBF-M, whichneighbor
led to analgorithm
accuracy inR2 WAAM
of 74.36%.with a predictionKumar
Furthermore, error
ranging
and Jainfrom[10] − 5.8% to 2.3%.
deployed Additionally,
a k-nearest neighborXia et al. [12]
algorithm investigated
in WAAM with various machine
a prediction error
learning models for predicting WAAM surface roughness, from which
ranging from −5.8% to 2.3%. Additionally, Xia et al. [12] investigated various machine adaptive neuro-
fuzzy inference
learning models systems optimizedWAAM
for predicting with the geneticroughness,
surface algorithm from showed superiority,
which adaptivewith an
neuro-
2 of 93.52%.
Rfuzzy inference systems optimized with the genetic algorithm showed superiority, with
an RFurthermore,
2 of 93.52%. six articles investigated polymer parts, the majority of which belong
to fused
Furthermore, six articles(FFF)
filament fabrication processes
investigated [20–26],
polymer andthe
parts, onemajority
article investigated
of which belong PVAto
composites
fused filamentin selective laser(FFF)
fabrication sintering (SLS)[20–26],
processes processesand[27].
one article investigated PVA com-
The next category gathers
posites in selective laser sintering (SLS) processes [27]. roughness of additively manu-
methods for reducing the
factured
Theparts, where 14gathers
next category articlesmethods
were identified. From the
for reducing those, solely the
roughness ofwork of Iquebal
additively man-
et al. [28] deals with polymer parts, while metal parts are the subjects of the remaining
ufactured parts, where 14 articles were identified. From those, solely the work of Iquebal
articles. Considering metals, a reduction in roughness is predominantly achieved using
et al. [28] deals with polymer parts, while metal parts are the subjects of the remaining
post-processing steps. For instance, Jiang et al. [29] investigated electropolishing on the
articles. Considering metals, a reduction in roughness is predominantly achieved using
nickel-based superalloy Hastelloy® X and achieved a reduction from 10.3 µm as-built
post-processing steps. For instance, Jiang et al. [29] investigated electropolishing on the
surface roughness down to 1.2 µm.®
nickel-based superalloy Hastelloy X and achieved a reduction from 10.3 µm as-built sur-
Furthermore, all the articles dealing with the effect of printing and process param-
face roughness down to 1.2 µm.
eters on roughness were gathered into another category. In this category, eleven articles
Furthermore, all the articles dealing with the effect of printing and process parame-
focusing on metal AM processes [30–40] and three articles, which focus on polymer parts
ters on roughness were gathered into another category. In this category, eleven articles
in FFF [41–43] were identified. For instance, Panahizadeh et al. [35] investigated laser
powder bed fusion and optimized the parameters of laser power, scanning speed, hatch
space, scanning pattern angle, and heat treatment temperatures, using the multiobjec-
tive non-dominant sorting genetic algorithm, to obtain parameter combinations that lead
to maximum relative density and minimum roughness on Ti6Al4V samples. Mushtaq
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 5 of 43

et al. [43] used the Taguchi method to explore the influence of fused filament fabrication
parameters on the roughness of printed ABS and PA on six specimens.
The effect of surface roughness on part properties was also the subject of several stud-
ies focusing on mechanical properties, such as microhardness [44], fatigue strength [45–48],
corrosion resistance [49,50], and electrical properties of the parts [51].
As the last category, dimensional accuracy should be noted, which is the only category
where studies on polymer AM [52–55] outweighs metal AM [54].
Derived from the investigated studies, it can be concluded that there is already a
certain awareness of the influence of roughness on multiple part properties; furthermore,
a common agreement exists that the roughness of additively manufactured parts must
be improved for the use of end parts. Accordingly, it is obvious that most studies deal
with either predicting or measuring the roughness in additive manufacturing, followed by
studies that investigated methods for reducing the roughness.
All the investigated studies are summarized in Table 1 to provide a quick overview
of the research on the roughness of additively manufactured parts, which is not primarily
linked to the field of tribology.

Table 1. Overview of research for roughness in AM not primarily linked to the field of tribology.

Category Topic Manufacturing Process References

Metal LPBF, WAAM [10–19]

Predicting or measuring the roughness
Polymer SLS, FFF [20–27]

Metal LBF, DMLS [29,50,56–66]

Methods for reducing roughness
Polymer [28]

Metal LBF, WAAM, GMAW [30–40]

Effects of printing and process parameters on roughness
Polymers FFF [41–43]

Corrosion LPBF-M [49,67]

Effects of roughness on part properties Mechanical LPBF-M, Arbitrary [44–48,51,68,69]
Electric FFF [70]

Metal LPBF-M [54]

Dimensional accuracy
Polymer FFF, MJF, VP [52–55]

In the following sections, the current studies with a tribological context in the area of
additively manufactured polymers, metals, and ceramics/cermets are summarized.

4. Tribology
4.1. Polymers
In the context of additive manufacturing, polymers play a very important role, due to
their easy processability or low costs of manufacturing [71]. However, research carried out
to date with regard to the tribological behavior of additively manufactured polymer parts
is still quite scarce. Based on our literature review, only 20 of 103 publications deal with the
tribological behavior of AM polymer specimens. The classification into subcategories was
kept simple in this case, since only three different AM processes were investigated in the
literature, which mainly differ according to the type of polymeric raw material and method
of sample generation (Figure 3). The classification in subcategories is illustrated in Figure 3.
Lubricants 2023, 11, x257
FOR PEER REVIEW 6 6of
of 42
43

Classification in
Figure 3. Classification
Figure insubcategories
subcategoriesfor
forpolymers:
polymers:(a)(a)digital light
digital processing
light (DLP);
processing (b) (b)
(DLP); extrusion-
extru-
sion-based additive
based additive manufacturing
manufacturing (EAM);
(EAM); (c) powder
(c) powder bed fusion
bed fusion (PBF). (PBF).

Extrusion-based additive manufacturing (EAM) is the predominant technology

Extrusion-based technology
(80% of polymer
polymerpublications),
publications),followed
followedbybypowder
powderbedbedfusion
fusion(PBF) processes,
(PBF) in particu-
processes, in par-
lar selective
ticular laser
selective sintering
laser (SLS),
sintering withwith
(SLS), 10%10%
of publications, and two
of publications, and papers investigated
two papers investi-
polymer
gated specimens
polymer usingusing
specimens digital lightlight
digital processing (DLP).
processing A further
(DLP). subdivision,
A further for for
subdivision, ex-
ample, based on materials, tribological test methods, or applications, was not
example, based on materials, tribological test methods, or applications, was not carriedcarried out
duedue
out to the small
to the number
small of publications.
number TheThe
of publications. publications considered
publications in the
considered following
in the are
following
summarized in Table 2.
are summarized in Table 2.
4.1.1. Digital Light Processing (DLP)
4.1.1. Digital Light Processing (DLP)
Provided that the polymeric raw material is in a liquid form such as a resin, DLP
Provided that the polymeric raw material is in a liquid form such as a resin, DLP
technology allows the photopolymerization process to be initiated using irradiation with
technology allows the photopolymerization process to be initiated using irradiation with
light, thus leading to the layer-by-layer build-up of specimens (Figure 3a).
light, thus leading to the layer-by-layer build-up of specimens (Figure 3a).
Huettig et al. [72] used this process to print polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) samples
Huettig et al. [72] used this process to print polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) sam-
and compared them with conventionally milled parts in terms of wear behavior. Prior to
ples and compared them with conventionally milled parts in terms of wear behavior. Prior
the reciprocating wear tests, the sample surfaces were polished to a comparable roughness
to the reciprocating wear tests, the sample surfaces were polished to a comparable rough-
value (Ra = 0.05 ± 0.01 µm). The reciprocating wear tests were performed under artificial
ness value (Ra = 0.05 ± 0.01 µm). The reciprocating wear tests were performed under arti-
saliva lubrication up to 5000 cycles at 5 N normal force and a sliding range of 10 mm.
ficial
Aftersaliva lubrication
evaluation, up wear
similar to 5000 cycleswere
depths at 5 Nmeasured
normal force anddifferently
for the a sliding range of 10 mm.
manufactured
After evaluation, similar wear depths were measured for the differently manufactured
specimens; thus, no significant difference in tribological behavior was detected. In a second
specimens;
study, Rudnikthus,
et no significant
al. [73] difference
investigated in tribological
the tribological behavior
behavior wasadditively
of the detected.manufac-
In a sec-
ond study, Rudnik et al. [73] investigated the tribological behavior of
tured MED610 material for biomedical applications and demonstrated comparatively the additively man-
low
ufactured MED610
abrasion resistance. material for biomedical applications and demonstrated comparatively
low abrasion resistance.
4.1.2. Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
4.1.2.In
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
powder-bed-based AM methods, the SLS process is predominantly used for poly-
mers.InEach
powder-bed-based
layer is sinteredAM methods,
with theheight
a defined SLS process
by usingis predominantly used produces
a laser beam, which for poly-
mers. Each layer
the typical layer structure
is sinteredofwith
AM acomponents
defined height by using
(Figure 3c). a laser beam, which produces
the typical layer structure
To investigate of AM components
the tribological (Figure
behavior of 3c).
SLS-printed samples, polyamide 12 (PA
To investigate
12) [74,75] the tribological
and thermoplastic behavior (TPU)
polyurethane of SLS-printed samples,
[75] specimens polyamide
were produced 12with
(PA
12) [74,75]printing
different and thermoplastic
orientations:polyurethane
a horizontal(TPU) [75] direction
printing specimenscorresponded
were produced 0◦ , a dif-
to with per-
pendicular
ferent direction
printing to 90◦ , and
orientations: a diagonal printing
a horizontal to 45◦ , whereby
direction direction all specifications
corresponded to 0°, a
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 7 of 43

refer relative to the building platform and the powder bed, respectively. Ziegler et al. [75]
showed that both COF and abrasive wear, evaluated using a reciprocating wear test, were
lower for PA 12 than for TPU. This is possibly caused by the lower mechanical properties
of TPU. A distinct printing orientation dependence was not discernible, whereas in [74],
at least for PA 12, a considerably better tribological behavior with respect to friction and
wear regarding the horizontal printing orientation (0◦ ) was observed. However, hardly any
difference was observed between the 45◦ and 90◦ directions in this case as well.

4.1.3. Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing (EAM)

EAM is the predominant technology for processing polymers, due to having a wide
variety of feedstocks; inexpensive printers as opposed to, for example, powder-bed-based
printers; and few requirements for safety aspects of processing [71,76]. In EAM technology,
polymeric filament material is extruded through a nozzle to build up the components
layer by layer (Figure 3b). This particular process is known as fused filament fabrication
(FFF). For most feedstocks, the nozzle must be heated to decrease viscosity and improve
extrusion. FFF was initially developed for polymeric materials, but it is feasible to extend
the technology to other materials (metals, ceramics, etc.).
According to our literature review, considering the selected search parameters from
Section 2, in the context of tribology and AM of polymers, the FFF process was the subject
of most studies, with 16 out of 19 publications, as expected. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS) [77–80] has emerged as an important feedstock, as well as composites with polycar-
bonate (PC) [81,82] and ABS reinforced with carbon fibers [83]. Furthermore, investigations
have been carried out on polylactic acid (PLA) [79,80,84–86], which is very widely used in
the AM industry, as a composite with bronze particles [87], silicon [84], and HT-PLA [86],
which is suitable for higher temperatures. Finally, the following materials represented
the research object of the considered publications and were investigated in detail with
regard to their tribological behavior: polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) [80,86,88],
polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) [89], polyether sulfone (PES) [90], PES/BF (basalt fiber
reinforced) [90], polyetherimide (PEI) [91], and acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA) [92].
Starting with ABS, at least for prototyping or the production of the casing and operat-
ing parts, the possible suitability of ABS with regard to its use in tribotechnical systems
is the subject of research. In their study, Amiruddin et al. [77] compared molded and
FFF-printed ABS specimens on a ball-on-disc tribometer under paraffin oil lubrication
and different loads. The authors observed an increase in the COF with increasing load,
regardless of the manufacturing process. The FFF-printed components exhibited higher
COF (0.040–0.055) due to higher surface roughness than molded ABS (0.009–0.025). In
addition, higher loads resulted in decreasing wear rates. In [78], ABS test specimens
were tribologically analyzed at different surface configurations, normal loads, and sliding
speeds. The results showed a similar effect to [77], namely the COF increased with increas-
ing normal loads, although the tribological tests were performed in a different test setup
(reciprocating). Additionally, the COF decreased with higher sliding velocities. The authors
also calculated and contrasted the results with theoretical tribological models, and it was
found that these theoretical models cannot represent reality. This is mainly due to the fact
that the FFF-printed surfaces are not smooth/polished surfaces [78].
Roy et al. [79] printed ABS specimens with different printing parameters, and particu-
lar consideration should be given to the infill percentage. After all, a lower infill percentage
had a positive effect on the COF and resulted in its reduction. Besides model tests (pin
on disc), in [80], printed ABS, PLA, and PETG polymeric gears were investigated for the
component tests on a gear test rig under dry running against steel gears, to evaluate the
wear behavior and service life. The tests indicated that PETG performed best in terms of
both the wear behavior and service life, whereas the results of PLA and ABS were quite
similar to each other and slightly below PETG. The tribological behavior of a composite
material, which consists of modified ABS with PC, was investigated by Mohamed et al. in
two publications using a non-lubricated pin-on-disc test, one in terms of friction [81] and
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 8 of 43

the other mainly related to wear behavior [82]. In both research papers, manufacturing
recommendations were given by the tribological screening of samples manufactured with
different printing parameters such as layer height, layer width, building direction, raster
angle, or air gap. These recommendations contain the most optimal constellation of the
investigated printing parameters with respect to the lowest wear rate and COF in the ana-
lyzed tribological system. Another possible modification of pure ABS involves carbon fiber
reinforcement. Studies on the effect of tailored carbon fiber filler content on tribological
behavior are provided in [83]. In this case, different printing parameters and carbon fiber
filler content were investigated. According to the pin-on-disc tests, the results obtained
indicate, on the one hand, an increasing COF at similar wear rates due to an increase in
the filler content of carbon fibers under dry running and, on the other hand, a significant
reduction in both COF and wear rates under water lubrication.
Several publications discuss the tribological behavior of both PLA and modified
PLA. First of all, modifications of pure PLA by adding other materials such as bronze
particles [87] or silicon (Si) [84] resulted in an improvement in mechanical properties, which
in particular significantly improved the wear behavior. The reason is that the deformation of
the substrate surface is reduced in sliding tests, which in turn increases the wear resistance
and thus reduces the wear rate. In addition, a decreasing wear rate and COF were measured
with increasing Si filler content regarding Si modification. In the cylinder-on-plate tests
using the bronze–PLA composite material carried out without lubrication, the vertical
printing orientation revealed the lowest wear rate in contrast to the horizontal printing
direction, but the highest COF. Hanon et al. [86] investigated modified HT-PLA, which is
more durable under high operating temperatures, and the melting point of the polymer
increased. As in [87], the vertical printing orientation was found to be advantageous
from a tribological point of view. In contrast to pure PLA and PETG, the results of HT-
PLA exhibited the lowest friction and wear coefficients; hence, this polymer is preferred
for tribological applications among the three polymers tested. As already mentioned,
in [79], ABS specimens were compared with PLA in the same tribological system under
the same test conditions, whereby PLA exhibited less friction but significantly higher
material removal as a result of the observed wear processes. Another study investigated
two different colored PLA filaments, with the aim of determining whether a difference
in tribological behavior could be detected due to color [85]. The samples were printed
at different temperatures, in natural and black colors. Tribological tests were performed
on a pin-on-disc tribometer under dry conditions. The results of the tests indicated an
influence of both filament color and printing temperature on tribological behavior. The
black PLA showed a lower COF at the same printing temperature in contrast to the natural
PLA, whereas 220 ◦ C was the most favorable temperature for both variants.
Another publication, which deals solely with PETG without a direct comparison with
other polymers, provides, for instance, the results on the influence of printing orienta-
tion or different loads under dry running conditions using a pin-on-disc tribometer [88].
The vertical printing direction, in contrast to the horizontal printing direction, as well as
higher loads (independent of printing direction), led to a higher wear rate. In the case of
frictional behavior, there was no direct correlation with the selected printing parameters.
Nevertheless, a higher layer thickness resulted in a slightly higher coefficient of friction
considering the same load conditions. The tribological behavior of PBT specimens was
evaluated by screening different printing parameters, for example, infill percentage, infill
variants, etc., on a pin-on-disc tribometer with reciprocating movement under dry condi-
tions [89]. The aim was to identify a tribologically tailored printing variant. Concerning
the wear rate, the printing variant with 90% infill degree, 90◦ infill orientation, 270 ◦ C
nozzle temperature, and a layer height of 0.25 mm performed most favorably. Vázquez
Martínez et al. [92] investigated the tribological behavior of ASA under similar conditions.
In conclusion, COF and wear rate increased with an increase in the printing temperature
or layer thickness for ASA-printed specimens. A further polymer being investigated was
PEI, which was FFF-printed with different build directions and layer deposition strategies
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 9 of 43

and tested under dry conditions with an Fe3 Al2 (SiO4 )3 garnet abrasive [91]. The study
indicated that printing in the horizontal orientation (X) and a layer deposition strategy of
0◦ and 90◦ reduced material wear and concomitantly exhibited a low COF. In [90], PES
and PES/BF with BF-fiber-reinforced composite specimens were printed with different
printing temperatures via FFF and tribologically characterized. The major outcome of the
investigations revealed that the wear rate was reduced by 80%, compared with pure PES,
due to fiber reinforcement. At the same time, the width of the wear track was reduced
by 45%.

Table 2. Overview of research analyzed in tribology of additively manufactured polymers.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Comparison of Wear tests
conventional, Identification of DLP, (reciprocating
Biotribology, Similar wear
[72] milled, and polishability and conventional movement;
Occlusal splints behavior
printed PMMA wear behavior and subtractive lubricated;
components steatite)
Dry ring-on-disc
tribometer with
Tribological Investigating
C45 steel Low abrasion
[73] behavior of tribological Biomedical PolyJet
counterparts resistance
Med610 performance
under
different loads
Wear increased
Pin-on-disc
Comparison of Identification of with contact
(rotatory
different printed wear and temperature;
[74] Basic research SLS movement;
orientations of frictional 0◦ print
dry; against
PA12 parts behavior orientation best
100Cr6-Disc)
trib. behavior
COF and wear
Comparison of Wear tests
TPU > PA12; COF
printing Identification of (reciprocating
raised with
orientations and wear and movement
[75] Shoe soles SLS sliding speed;
tribological frictional against steel
Printing
loadings of TPU behavior balls and
orientation no
and PA12 sandpaper; dry)
clear difference
COF raised with
Ball-on-disc
increasing load;
Comparison of Identification of (rotatory
COF higher for
compression tribological movement;
[77] Basic research FFF printed parts;
molded and FFF behavior under paraffin oil
reduced wear
printed ABS different loads lubricated; EN31
rate for
steel ball)
higher loads
COF raised with
Identification of
Comparison of increasing load;
tribological
different loads, Box-on-plate reduced with
behavior in
sliding velocities, (reciprocating higher velocities;
[78] contrast to Basic research FFF
and surface movement; dry; theoretical
theoretical
configurations for counterpart ABS) models provided
tribological
ABS parts other findings
models
than experiments
Block-on-roller
Comparison of ABS parts with
Identification of (rotatory
printing process higher COF but
[79] tribological Basic research FFF movement; dry;
parameters of lower wear rate
behavior against EN
ABS and PLA than PLA parts
8 roller)
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 10 of 43

Table 2. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Comparison of
Gear test rig with
PLA-, ABS-, and PETG exhibited
Identification of St 37-2 steel
PETG-printed the best
tribological gear (wear/
[80] gears Gears FFF performance and
behavior and service life;
regarded to their the highest
service life rotatory
tribological service life
movement; dry)
behavior
Pin-on-disc Optimal
Comparison of
Identification of (rotatory parameters for
printing process
[81] frictional Basic research FFF movement; dry; the lowest COF
parameters for
behavior EN 31 steel were found after
PC-ABS parts
plates) screening
Pin-on-disc Optimal
Comparison of
(rotatory parameters for
printing process Identification of
[82] Basic research FFF movement; dry; the lowest wear
parameters for wear behavior
EN 31 steel rate were found
PC-ABS parts
plates) after screening
Dry: COF higher
Pin-on-disc with higher
Comparison of (rotatory fiber infill;
printing process Identification of movement; dry Water: COF and
[83] parameters of tribological Basic research FFF and water wear rate
carbon-fiber behavior lubrication; significantly
reinforced ABS against 40 HM lower with
steel plate) increasing
fiber infill
Comparison of Pin-on-disc Filling with
silicon filler Identification of (rotatory silicon
[84] percentages tribological Basic research FFF movement; dry; decreased the
in PLA behavior counterpart wear rate
composites EN19 steel) and COF
COF:
Pin-on-disc Black < natural
Comparison of
Identification of (rotatory PLA at the same
printing process
[85] tribological Basic research FFF movement; dry; temperature;
parameters
behavior against Al2 O3 higher
of PLA
ball) temperature →
higher COF
HT-PLA: lowest
Comparison of Correlation wear rate and
the tribological between printing Cylinder-on- COF; vertical
[86] behavior of PLA, parameters and Basic research FFF plate (rotatory printing
HT-PLA, tribological movement; dry) orientation
and PETG behavior favored for
all parts
Bronze reduced
Effect of printing wear rate but not
Evaluation of
orientation and Cylinder-on- COF, and
bronze in PLA
bronze existence plate (rotatory vertical printing
composites and
[87] on tribological Basic research FFF movement; orientation
the influence on
behavior of dry; against exhibited the
the tribological
bronze/PLA steel plate) highest COF, but
behavior
composite parts the lowest
wear rate;
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 11 of 43

Table 2. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Higher load
Comparison Pin-on-disc
and/or vertically
of different Identification of (rotatory
printed → higher
[88] printing process tribological Basic research FFF movement; dry;
wear rate; Higher
parameters behavior 100Cr6 steel
layer thickness →
of PETG counterpart)
higher COF
Comparison of COF was hardly
different printing Identification of Pin-on-disc dependent on the
[89] process tribological Basic research FFF (reciprocating degree of infill;
parameters behavior movement, dry) low infill →
for PBT higher wear
Comparison
BF fiber
of printing
Identification of Wear tests reinforcement
temperature,
[90] tribological Basic research FFF (rotatory improved
BF fiber
behavior movement; dry) the wear
reinforcement
resistance
of PES
Low wear rate
and COF →
Pin-on-disc horizontal
Comparison of Identification of
(rotatory orientation (X)
[91] printing process tribological Basic research FFF
movement; dry; and a layer
parameters of PEI behavior
against steel disc) deposition
strategy of 0◦
and 90◦
Comparison Pin-on-disc Higher layer
of printing Identification of (rotatory thickness,
[92] temperature and tribological Basic research FFF movement; dry; temperature →
layer thickness behavior AISI 304 higher wear rate
of ASA counterpart) and COF

4.2. Metals
Although plastics still have the largest share of the AM market [76], the interest
in tribological aspects seems to be significantly higher for metallic materials due to the
increase in the number of publications regarding these materials. The most commonly
used processes can be roughly divided into powder bed processes and direct extrusion
processes according to the type of material feed. The designation of different processes is
partly defined differently. The following paragraph therefore briefly summarizes the most
important designations.
The most important subdivision is based on the material supply. In powder-bed-based
processes, the metallic material is applied in a powder form from a reservoir after each layer.
A subsequent energy input heats the loose powder in the second step until the powder
melts or is sintered. The fine subdivision of the processes results from the energy input used.
The terms direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), selective laser sintering (SLS), selective
laser melting (SLM), and laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) describe the use of a laser for
melting or sintering. When an electron beam is used, the process is referred to as either
electron beam powder bed fusion (EBPBF) or electron beam melting (EBM). All powder-
bed-based processes are usually grouped together under the term powder bed fusion
(PBF). With 58 of the 77 articles examined, most of the submissions fall into this category.
In contrast to powder-bed-based processes, there are processes in which the material to
be printed is applied directly (direct energy deposition (DED)). The subdivision is then
further established on the basis of the energy source used and the form of the material
Lubricants 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 42

material to be printed is applied directly (direct energy deposition (DED)). The subdivi-
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 12 of 43
sion is then further established on the basis of the energy source used and the form of the
material supplied. In electron beam direct energy deposition (EBDED), an electron beam
melts the material supplied in wire form, creating a bond with the underlying layer. This
supplied.
is In electron
in contrast to laser beam directenergy
wire direct energydeposition (EBDED), an
deposition (LWDED). electron
Here, beam melts
the energy inputtheis
material supplied in wire form, creating a bond with the underlying layer. This is
performed using a laser. If the material is applied into the extrusion area in a powderin contrast
to laser
form, thewire direct energy
laser-based process is known(LWDED).
deposition Here, the
as laser powder bedenergy
direct input
energyis deposition
performed
using a laser. If the material is applied into the extrusion area in a powder form, the laser-
(LPDED) or laser additive manufacturing (LAM). Finally, in wire-arc additive manufac-
based process is known as laser powder bed direct energy deposition (LPDED) or laser
turing (WAAM), a wire is melted with the help of an electric arc. This is similar to a typical
additive manufacturing (LAM). Finally, in wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), a
welding process.
wire is melted with the help of an electric arc. This is similar to a typical welding process.
Apart from the processes described, there are also other approaches that work with
Apart from the processes described, there are also other approaches that work with
highly filled filaments in fused filament fabrication (FFF), for instance. However, since
highly filled filaments in fused filament fabrication (FFF), for instance. However, since
these processes have not yet been investigated with regard to their tribological aspects,
these processes have not yet been investigated with regard to their tribological aspects,
they will not be discussed further here. Figure 4 shows the proportion of manufacturing
they will not be discussed further here. Figure 4 shows the proportion of manufacturing
processes used in the contributions examined.
processes used in the contributions examined.

Figure 4.
Figure Classification in
4. Classification in subcategories
subcategories for
for metals:
metals: (a)
(a) powder
powder bed
bed fusion
fusion (PBF);
(PBF); (b)
(b) direct
direct energy
energy
deposition (DED) with powder; (c) wire feedstock.
deposition

The following
The following passages
passagessummarize
summarizeprevious
previousresearch in in
research thethe
area of additively
area manufac-
of additively man-
tured metal materials. The subdivision is based on the different processes. The publications
ufactured metal materials. The subdivision is based on the different processes. The publi-
considered
cations are summarized
considered in Tablein
are summarized 3.Table 3.

Table 3. Overview of research analyzed in tribology of additively manufactured metals.

4.2.1. Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
Among the works examined in this review, powder bed processes are the most used.
Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
With a total of 51 contributions, the most common method of heat input is using a laser
beam (Figure 4a). Composites had a
One of the first works in the context of tribology with AM is the work lowerof COF
Lorusso
but et
Additive Comparison
al. [93] fromof2016. The authors compared the tribological behavior of higher
the wear with
samples fabri-
Pin-on-disc,
manufactured different micro size TiB
cated using DLMS from AlSi10Mg reinforced with TiBdry,
Basic WC and nanoparticles. In2 ad-
2 micro-
[93] aluminum-based composites with DMLS reinforcement but
metal matrix
dition to microstructure
samples made
and hardness, they investigated
research cemented tribological
with behavior on a pin-
higher COF in
on-disc Co pin
tribometer under dry conditions. The microhardness was higher for all the printed
composites by casting comparison to
samples than for the casted reference. A WC/Co pin with a 3 mm radiussamples was used as the
made
counterpart. The COF was higher for the printed samples than for the casted byones, but the
casting
friction was reduced
Compare friction by adding particles. Wear was lowest for
Ring-on-disc, the printed samples with
nanoparticles
and wear with but highest when microparticles were used.46Another
L-HM hydraulicearly contribution was
Tribological Reduced friction
traditional
that of Zhu et al. [94]. They studied the differences in oil the
lubricated,
tribological behavior
behavior of Hydraulic and wear of 316 L
using
[94] manufacturing
stainless steel produced using the SLMSLM counterpart:
process depending on H68
the counterpart used
316 L produced application brass as the and
using different brass, ion-nitriding
using SLM in comparison, with a conventionally produced reference. With a soft brass counterpart,
counterpart
counter 38CrMoAl, L-HM
bodies 46 hydraulic oil
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 13 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
No significant
Friction and wear Linear tribometer, effect of build-up
Tribological under different dry reciprocating direction on friction
Basic
[95] performance build-up SLM sliding with and wear,
research
of 316 L directions and E-52,100 hardened decreased COF
test conditions steel balls at higher
temperatures
Pin-on-disc, mixed
and hydrodynamic
Friction and wear Increased laser
lubrication,
in dependence exposure time lead
Influence of pores hardened
on the to reduced pores
and density on Hydraulic 38CrMoAl Disc,
[96] process-related SLM and higher
tribological application 6 mm
density under hardness, COF
performance diameter 316 L pin,
different contact decreases with
both polished,
conditions lower density
L-HM46
hydraulic oil
Test rig with ISO
Additive Multichannel
VG46 oil-cooled
manufactured design
Cooling Tilting-pad pads, different
tilting-pad performed best
[97] pads with journal SLS cooling conditions,
journal bearings in terms
internal channels bearings and comparison
for improved of temperature
to TEHL
cooling reduction
simulations
Microstructure,
hardness, and Tribological
Comparison Resulting
pin-on-paper wear behavior is
of manufacturing properties
Basic test against a promising
[98] techniques of cast steel, SLM
research bonded abrasive compared with
of M3:2 hot-isostatic
paper of cast steel, conventional
high-speed steel pressing and SLM
hot-isostatic manufacturing
pressing and SLM
LB-PBF have
Investigating Dry and lubricated
higher wear in
Tribological wear tests on ball-on-disc
Basic lubricated but
[99] behavior of resistance and LB-PBF tribometer under
research lower wear in
17-4 PH friction of 10 N and 30 N with
dry conditions
17-4 PH 52,100 steel balls
compared with CM
Better wear
Improving Microstructure, resistance
Plasma
mechanical hardness, compared with
oxidation of Basic
properties and pin-on-disc under forged samples,
[100] LPBF- research/ LPBF
tribological dry and SFB due to higher
manufactured biomedical
behavior by lubrication with hardness, larger
titanium
plasma oxidation Al2 O3 ball diffusion zone, and
microstructure
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 14 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Powders produced
via combustion
reaction showed
Ball-on-disc better performance
Spherical tribometer with compared with the
Improving Basic
[101] powders with LAM Si3 N4 balls under gas atomization
friction and wear research
silver content different loads and process, and the
temperatures lubrication layer
with silver led to
low friction and
reduced wear
Untreated SLM
Single melt and
samples show
checkerboard
Influence of lower wear
scanning,
scanning compared to
microstructure,
Properties of SLM strategy and Basic heat-treated and
[102] SLM hardness, dry
Al-12Si heat treatment on research cast samples,
pin-on-disc wear
tribological higher wear at SM
tests with
behavior Samples compared
hard-faced stainless
to CB due to
steel disc
higher porosity
Coating growth
slowed down with
Micro-arc Ball-on-disc dry increasing
Improving wear
oxidation (MAO) Basic sliding wear test treatment duration,
[103] resistance SLM
treatment of SLM research with WC-CO ball, tribological
through MAO
Ti6Al4V microhardness performance
increased through
MAO treatment
Hardness, tensile
Higher wear
strength, and
Characterization resistance, tensile
reciprocating
of Nickel Provide high Basic strength, and
[104] LPBF sliding with JIS
Aluminum density materials research hardness compared
SUJ2 steel
Bronze to conventional
counterpart and
manufacturing
engine oil FG-5
Higher hardness
and wear
resistance
compared to
wrought and
Comparing wear Reciprocation
Wear resistance wrought
of SLM samples ball-on-plate
of Ti6Al4V for heat-treated
[105] with wrought Biomedical SLM tribometer with
biomedical samples due to
and heat-treated Al2 O3 balls and
application microstructure but
samples artificial saliva
in the
the direction of the
molten lines, the
wear resistance was
the worst
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 15 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Tool life decreased
Machinability of Examining the Analyzing tool by up to 40%
additive influence of Machinability wear and machined depending for
[106] LPBF
manufactured anisotropy for of AM parts surface quality vertical
Ti6Al4V tool wear after milling manufactured
samples
Impact-abrasive
resistance
Metal–diamond Increasing wear Mining Impact abrasive increased with
[107] SLM-SPS
composites impact resistance application experiments higher Mo-Cr, Ni,
and coated
diamond content
Electron beam
treatment increased
Microstructure, surface roughness
Increasing
hardness and wear and surface layer
hardness Increasing wear
Basic pin-on-disc test hardness.
[108] via electron beam resistance of SLM
research under dry Thermal air
irradiation and Ti6Al4V
conditions with oxidation
thermal oxidation
WC ball resulted in
oxide layer
buildup.
Microhardness,
The dominant
Investigation XRD, wear on
influence of
influence on reciprocating
porosity on wear
Heat treatment microstructure, Basic tribometer
[109] SLM behavior, wrought
of 316 L mechanical research under dry
samples showed
behavior and lubrication with
better wear
wear tungsten
resistance
carbide ball
Roughness,
Wear rate
Improving microhardness, and
reduced using
Finish-Milling surface, wear on dry
Basic finish-milling
[110] effect on surface mechanical SLM reciprocating
research operation
and wear properties, tribometer with
with a high
and wear tungsten
feed rate
carbide ball
Lower friction
Scratch tests under
Understanding and wear
Scratch and wear different load, dry
friction and wear Basic compared to
[111] resistance LPBF sliding ball-on-disc
mechanisms of research conventionally
of 316 L tests with
AM 316 L manufactured
bearing ball
specimen
Dry friction and
Coating led
Wear of Investigating wear test under
Basic to excellent
[112] AlCrFeCoNi wear SLM different loads and
research hardness and
Alloy coating behavior speeds with
wear resistance
SiC ball
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 16 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Investigation of
temperature Better
influence in Ball-on-disc test tribological and
Tribological and
post-treatment with bearing steel tribocorrosion
tribocorrosion
[113] with ultrasonic Biomedical SLM ball under dry and behavior at
behavior of
nanocrystal NaCl solution high-temperature
Co-Cr-Mo alloy
surface lubrication UNSM and higher
modification hardness
(UNSM)
Microhardness,
SEM, 3D
profilometer,
Wear resistance and
Energy dispersive
Tribological hardness improved
X-ray spectrometer,
behavior of compared to
Basic research, and X-ray
[114] Ti6Al4V coated Reducing wear SLM the uncoated
Biomedical diffractometer.
316 L SLM with 316 L due to the
Wear tests against
plasma oxidation titanium oxide
Al2 O3 balls under
diffusion zone
dry sliding on a
pin-on-disc
tribometer
Corrosion with
open-circuit Improved
potential, corrosion resistance
potentiodynamic compared to
Corrosion of Reducing polarization, and untreated 316 L
ceramic-based corrosion by Electrochemical and layered
[115] Biomedical SLM
TiO2 coatings on oxidized Ti6Al4 Impedance Ti6Al4/316 L, best
layered SLM coating Spectroscopy in results with
Simulated increased oxidation
Body Fluid, temperature
microhardness, and time
SEM, XRD
Wear could
Characterization be reduced
Boride-reinforced Microstructure,
of microstructure Basic significantly by
[116] steel coating SLM hardness, and
and wear research adding the SLM
produced by SLM wear tests
resistance coating, but friction
remained similar
Grinding and
Investigating the Pin-on-disc
polishing lead to
influence of tribometer against
Postprocessing of the lowest COF,
different surface Basic bearing steel
[117] AISI H13 LPBF/SLM no correlation
conditions on the research with a mineral
Steel SLM between COF
tribological base oil
and surface
behavior lubrication
roughness
Microstructure,
nanoindentation,
Characterization Better mechanical
Properties of and pin-on-disc
of tribological behavior
Inconel® 718 Basic tribometer under
[118] behavior LPBF and lower
produced by research dry lubrication
compared to cast wear compared
L-PBF with oil-hardened
samples to cast samples
nickel steel as
counterpart
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 17 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
SLM-
Microhardness, manufactured
Influence Microstructure and samples could have
of heat treatment wear on higher wear
Heat treatment of
temperature Basic reciprocating resistance
[119] Inconel® 718 SLM
on structure, research tribometer under compared to the
produced by SLM
hardness, dry conditions with wrought reference
and wear a tungsten when heat
carbide ball treatment is
appropriate
M50-Sn-Ag-Cu-
Reciprocating dry
LAM Ti3 C2 lead
Improving sliding tests with
manufactured to significant
tribological Basic Si3 N4 ball at
[120] M50 with LAM improvement
behavior and research different loads and
Sn-Ag-Cu of tribological
reduce noise speeds, noise
and Ti3 C2 behavior
measurement
and reduced noise
Influence of
Reciprocating dry
Tribological SnAgCu 10 wt.% of SnAgCu
sliding tests with
behavior and concentration on Basic lead to the
[121] LAM Si3 N4 ball at
noise of TC4 with tribological research lowest COF and
different loads,
SnAgCu behavior noise emission
noise measurement
and noise
Investigating the The scanning angle
most important Pin-on-disc was the most
Process
printing Basic tribometer under important
[122] parameters of SLM
parameters for research dry lubrication parameter for
Ti6Al4V SLM
the tribological with alumina ball the tribological
behavior behavior
Investigating the Ball-on-disc Ball-on-disc
influence of tribometer under tribometer under
Printing textured surface textures Basic dry and lubricant- dry and lubricant-
[123] SLM
surfaces in SLM and dimples on research impregnated impregnated
the tribological conditions with a conditions with a
behavior bearing steel ball bearing steel ball
Microstructure, Wear decreased
Improving
microhardness, significantly with
TiB/Ti6Al4V hardness and
Basic wear on rising boron
[124] composites in wear behavior LPBF
research pin-on-disc content while
LPBF with boron
tribometer with 60 microhardness
composite
HRC steel plate improved
Similar friction and
Investigating the Hot-strip drawing wear at 600 ◦ C
High temperature tribological tribometer with compared to
friction and wear behavior of Al-Si coated hot-work steel,
[125] Tooling SLM
of maraging maraging steel 22MnB5 counter unstable friction of
tool steel at high surface at 600 ◦ C maraging
temperatures and 700 ◦ C steel at 700 ◦ C but
similar wear
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 18 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Steel and ceramic
shots improved the
Influence of shot
Hardness, wear on hardness and wear
penning pressure
ball-on-disc resistance most,
Effect of shot and blasting
Basic under dry ceramic shots with
[126] penning on media on the DMLS
research lubrication with 0.6 MPa led to
DMLS 17-4 PH tribological and
tungsten optimum surface
corrosion
carbide-cobalt balls morphology,
behavior
hardness, and
microstructure
Improved friction
and wear of graded
Dry sliding Ag-multilayer
Graded
tribometer with graphene/TC4
Ag-multilayer Friction and wear Basic
[127] LAM Si3 N4 ball at alloy compared to
graphene/ reduction research
different loads and homogeneous
TC4 alloy
temperatures Ag-multilayer
graphene/TC4
alloy and pure TC4
Friction factors
Predicting were higher than in
Friction in
friction classical turbulent
additively Hydraulic Measuring friction
[128] factors in SLM LPBF/SLM flow theory and
manufactured application factors, Simulation
manufactured were influenced by
fluid channels
fluid channels build angle and
channel diameter
Anisotropy in gain
Tensile testing,
size and
Investigating the microstructure,
morphology led
Anisotropy of influence of build Fretting
to significant
Co28Cr6Mo in orientation on tribocorrosion with
[129] Biomedical SLM differences in
biomedical mechanical and phosphate-
tensile
application functional buffered
properties and
properties saline,
bio-tribocorrosion
Cytocompatibility
wear rates
Microstructure, Hardness and wear
Influence of
hardness, and wear were improved
post-heat Basic
Air-cooling and on ball-on-disc compared to the
[130] treatment on the research/ LPBF
aging of Ti6Al4V tribometer with conventional
tribological biomedical
sodium chloride manufactured
behavior
lubricant. samples
Ball-on-flat Wear could be
Effect of tribometer with reduced
minimum 100Cr6 ball under significantly by
Friction and wear
quantity (MQL) dry, minimum using a
of 316 L under Basic
[131] and cryogenic SLM quantity lubrication combined
cryogenic research
lubrication on the (MQL), cryogenic, cryo + MQL
conditions
tribological and hybrid lubrication
behavior cryo + MQL compared to dry
conditions lubrication
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 19 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Laser power
Influence of laser correlated with
Direct Impact
power, scanning thermal stresses,
Hopkinson
Printing speed, and hatch tribological
Basic Pressure bar,
[132] parameters spacing on the LPBF performance
research dry sliding
in LPBF tribological improved with
reciprocating wear
behavior and higher laser power
test with steel ball
thermal stresses and lower
hatch spacing
A high-quality and
wear-resistant
Bio-tribology and
Microhardness, coating could be
corrosion
electrochemical achieved,
TiN coating of resistance
[133] Biomedical ALM measurements, corrosion was
ALM Ti6Al4V compared to
reciprocating reduced for the
wrought
sliding wear test ALM sample
reference
compared
with the reference
Hardness, Better wear
electrochemical resistance and
Investigating
Ferritic-induced potent kinetic hardness and
wear
high-alloyed Basic reactivation tests, similar corrosion
[134] resistance, LPBF
stainless steel research and linearly resistance
microstructure
from LPBF reciprocating compared to the
and corrosion
pin-on-plate sliding hot-rolled duplex
wear tests stainless steel
TC4-Sn-Ag-Cu-
Nb2C in
combination with
TC4-Sn-Ag-Cu-
microporous
Nb2C Dry reciprocating
Reducing friction channels improved
self-lubricating Basic tribometer test with
[135] and noise LAM friction and wear
material with research Si3 N4 ball, acoustic
emission behavior compared
microporous measurement
to TC4Sn-Ag-Cu
channels
and pure TC4,
noise emission was
also improved
Sliding wear test on Surface roughness
reciprocating could be
Influence of drag
tribometer with reduced
Drag Finish finish processing
Basic Al2 O3 ball and significantly
[136] Post-processing parameters on the LPBF
research under dry compared to the as
of Ti6Al4V tribological
lubrication, build state while
behavior
hardness, surface hardness improved,
roughness and wear decreased
Improvement in
Improving Reciprocating
wear resistance
Optimizing SLM mechanical sliding tests with
Basic compared to
[137] parameters for properties and SLM ZrO2 balls
research conventional
60NiTi alloy tribological under dry
casting
behavior lubrication
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 20 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Hardness, SLM samples had
Comparing
microstructure, better wear
Wear and wear and
wear under resistance than
[138] tribocorrosion tribocorrosion of Biomedical SLM
simulated forged ones but
of T6Al4V SLM and forged
body fluid, a lower corrosion
Ti6Al4V
tribocorrosion resistance
Successful
replacement of the
Testing an AM original part
AM spare Replacement of the
replacement for a without damage to
parts for Hydraulic original part and
[139] slipper-retainer in SLM other parts but
hydraulic application analyzing wear
an axial increase in the
application in the application
piston pump surface roughness
of other
pump parts
The combination of
Ball-on-flat
MQL and
Understanding tribometer with
cryogenic
the 100Cr6 ball, dry,
Lubrication lubrication helped
influence of the Basic minimum quantity
[140] regimes LPBF to provide a good
lubrication research lubrication (MQL),
in AM 316 L lubrication film and
regime cryogenic and
thus improved the
for AM parts hybrid cryo + MQL
tribological
conditions
behavior
Hardness war
improves
SEM, EDX, XRD,
Heat-treatment compared with the
Effect of heat microhardness and
effect on Basic as-build state and
[141] treatment SLM dry sliding wear
wear and research the wear behavior
parameters tests with
microstructure of intercritical heat
Al2 O3 balls
treatment seemed
promising
It was possible to
apply dense and
hard coatings with
Protective glass Producing wear
Microstructure, high wear
former coating resistant coatings
[142] Coating LPBF hardness, resistance on the
produced using LPBF for
and wear tests substrate while the
by LPBF steel substrate
dominant wear
mechanism
was abrasive wear
Dry ball-on-plate
Plasma Wear resistance in Increased wear
tribometer
Electrolytic dependency of resistance
[143] Biomedical LPBF with yttria
Oxidation on coating compared to the
stabilized zirconia
LPBF Ti6Al4V parameters untreated reference
counterpart
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 21 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Electric Discharge
Alloying (EAD)
Wear tests on
lead to a significant
Post-treatment pin-on-disc
improvement in
for tribometer with
Effect of heat wear resistance
improving the EN-31 alloyed steel
treatment and Basic for SLM and
[144] tribological SLM counterpart under
Electric Discharge research cast specimen,
behavior of lubricated
Alloying (EAD) heat treatment
lubricated conditions at
improved wear
Al-Si alloy different
resistance for cast
temperatures
specimen while
decreasing for SLM
Hardness and
Microstructure,
wear resistance
Carbon nanotube Evaluating hardness, and wear
Basic were improved
[145] reinforcement microstructure LPBF in dry sliding tests
research significantly by
of 316 L and wear under different
adding carbon
normal loads
nanotubes
Microstructure,
Increased hardness
hardness, dry
Atmosphere gas Improving and thus
Basic friction on
[146] carburizing of tribological EBM reduced wear and
research pin-on-disc
pure titanium behavior COF compared to
tribometer with a
untreated samples
bearing steel ball
Reciprocating The lowest COF
Tribological ball-on-plate dry and wear were
Comparison of
behavior of Basic wear tests with observed for the
[147] different carbide EBM
carbide-rich research bearing steel ball, 20% carbide steel
contents
tool steel scratch tests, compared to the 8%
hardness and 25% ones
Wear resistance
of the EBM
Comparing wear samples decreased
Wear of Dry sliding wear
of EBM samples Basic significantly
[148] ferrite-pearlite EBM test with 52,100
with hot research compared to the
steel from EBM steel balls
rolled ones hot rolled samples
due to the changed
microstructure
Tribological
Dry sliding wear
behavior of Evaluation of Wear rates
Basic against steel
[149] EBPBF Ti6Al4V wear at different EBPBF decreased with
research and alumina
under high temperatures rising temperature
counter bodies
temperatures
Water-quenching
led to the best
tribological
Effect of different
Heat treatment performance in
heat treatments Dry sliding
of Ti6Al4V Basic terms of wear
[150] on the EBM wear tests,
produced research while wear in
tribological microhardness
by EBM furnace-cooled
behavior
samples was higher
than in the
untreated samples
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 22 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Less wear in the
Investigating the Basic Jet-wear test,
Fe-Cr-V alloy for Jet-wear tests
[151] possible use research/ PBF-EB impact test, field
wear application compared to the
for tooling tooling test with AM tools
reference material
Dry and lubricated
reciprocating Gradient
Inconel® ball-on-flat microhardness and
Functionally
625/SS420 FGM Basic tribometer tests good wear
[152] graded material LAAD
coating of research with SS440C resistance were
with LAAM
cast steel steel ball, achieved by the
microstructure, crack-free coating
hardness
Wear rates
depended on
sliding speed and
Dry Ball-on-disc load and lower
Wear of Fe-8Cr- Influence of heat
Basic tests with wear rates
[153] 3V-2Mo-2W treatment and DED
research high-carbon steel for the zirconia
DED counterpart
and zirconia balls counterpart, better
wear resistance
without
heat treatment
Micropores
decreased with
Microhardness,
rising laser power,
Wear and reciprocating dry
Influence of Basic microhardness, and
[154] microstructure of LAM wear test
laser power research wear were
Inconel® 718 with bearing
best for a
steel ball
laser power
of 1200 W
Dry ball-on-disc
Wear resistance of Excellent wear
wear tests with
M2 compared to resistance
Wear of DED M2 Basic bearing steel and
[155] conventionally DED compared to
tool steel research zirconia balls with
manufactured conventionally
different speeds
steel manufactured steel
and loads
Higher anisotropy
was observed with
inter-layer cold
working in tensile
Isotropy of Investigating Tensile testing, dry testing and the
mechanical WAAM- Basic pin-on-disc wear inter-layer cold
[156] WAAM
properties and manufactured research tests with bearing working led
wear behavior isotropy steel pin to a higher
hardness and
thus improved
wear resistance and
lower friction
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 23 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Corrosion
Electrochemical resistance and
Tantalum- measurement in 0.5 surface hardness
zirconium Corrosion and Basic mol/L H2 SO4 , were improved by
[157] DED
coating on wear resistance research hardness, dry the coating and the
Ti6Al4V block-ring wear test wear resistance
with GCr15 ring improved
significantly
Increased hardness
Dry sliding wear
and wear resistance
WAAM of Investigating tests with bearing
Basic of WAAM
[158] Ni-based wear WAAM steel ball at
research specimen
superalloy resistance different loads,
compared to the
hardness
wrought ones
Wear rates
depended mainly
Dry ball-on-disc on the applied load
DED coating of tribometer with and at high
Fe-12Mn-5Cr- Improving wear Basic bearing steel ball at loads, the
[159] DED
1Ni-0.4C resistance research different loads manganese steel
on cast iron and speeds, coating increased
mechanical testing wear resistance
compared to the
cast iron
It was possible to
Mechanical testing, produce
Characterizing
CoCrFeMoNiV hardness, Miller CoCrFeMoNiV
wear resistance Basic
[160] produced by WAAM wear test with WAAM with
and process research
WAAM according to ASTM good yield
parameters
G75 strength and
wear resistance
Corrosion
resistance
improved
Corrosion and with rising
Fe-based wear resistance Microstructure, manufacturing
Basic
[161] stainless-steel depending on DED hardness, corrosion speed as well as the
research
coating with DED manufacturing testing, wear test hardness, wear
speed resistance reaches a
threshold
at a mean
speed level
Lanthanum Influence of
Microstructure, dry Shorter running in
Oxide in LDD- Lanthanum
Basic sliding friction test and reduced wear
[162] manufactured Oxide on the LDD
research with silicon nitride rate with rising
Iron-Chromium tribological
ceramic ball La2 O3 content
Alloy behavior
Microstructure, Improved wear
Investigating Hybrid
Hybrid AM with Basic high-temperature resistance
[163] high-temperature additive
laser cladding research tribometer with compared to
wear manufacturing
Si3 N4 ball the substrate
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 24 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Tribological
Pre-positioned
behavior under Dry pin-on-disc Load was the
wire-based Pre-positioned
different loads Basic tribometer test with dominant factor for
[164] electron beam wire-based
and main research D3 steel the tribological
additive EBM
influencing counterpart behavior
manufacturing
factors
A dense maraging
steel part was
Rubber wheel achieved and a
Cold Gas testing, dry ball on subsequent cermet
Cold Gas Spray Improvement in
Basic Spray disc tribometer coating led
[165] Additive corrosion and
research Additive Man- tests with to a significantly
Manufacturing wear resistance
ufacturing WC-Co ball, improved
corrosion testing sliding wear
and water
erosion resistance
Electro-spark
deposition and
subsequent
boronizing of the
H13 tool steel
High-
Inconel® 718 High-temperature led to improved
temperature
coating by Basic Electro-spark wear and hardness, wear
[166] wear and
electro-spark research deposition electrochemical resistance and
corrosion
deposition corrosion testing corrosion resistance
resistance
but corrosion
resistance was
best for the
as-deposited
coating
The content of
unmelted TiC
was significantly
reduced by the
Composite ultrasonic
Microhardness, Dry
coating with Tribological assistance and
Ultrasonic- pin-disc friction,
Ultrasonic- behavior of TiC Basic hardness improved
[167] assisted and wear tests with
Assisted composite research compared to the
LAM hardened
Laser Additive coating substrate as well as
45 steel disc
Manufacturing the coating
without ultrasonic
assistance, but the
COF of the
coating increased
SLM specimen had
the best
performance in
Comparing Tensile testing,
yield and ultimate
Comparison of mechanical pin-on-disc with
SLM, LENS, tensile strength as
[168] different AM properties and Biomedical hardened steel
WAAM well as wear
methods tribological counterpart,
resistance while
behavior hardness
WAAM showed
the most
ductile behavior
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 25 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Linear
reciprocating No significant
Temperature
High- sliding wear tests influence of
influence on Basic
[169] temperature wear SLM, EBM with WC-CO temperature or
tribological research
of AM Ti6Al4V counterpart manufacturing
behavior
at different loads on wear rate
and temperatures
Self-lubricating
Hardness, dry LPBF showed
Self-lubricating LPBF, spark
Tribological Basic ball-on-flat slightly better
[170] Al-WS2 plasma
behavior research tribometer tribological
composites sintering
with Si3 N4 ball behavior compared
to SLM-SPS

4.2.1. Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

Among the works examined in this review, powder bed processes are the most used.
With a total of 51 contributions, the most common method of heat input is using a laser
beam (Figure 4a).
One of the first works in the context of tribology with AM is the work of Lorusso
et al. [93] from 2016. The authors compared the tribological behavior of the samples
fabricated using DLMS from AlSi10Mg reinforced with TiB2 micro- and nanoparticles.
In addition to microstructure and hardness, they investigated tribological behavior on a
pin-on-disc tribometer under dry conditions. The microhardness was higher for all the
printed samples than for the casted reference. A WC/Co pin with a 3 mm radius was used
as the counterpart. The COF was higher for the printed samples than for the casted ones,
but the friction was reduced by adding particles. Wear was lowest for the printed samples
with nanoparticles but highest when microparticles were used. Another early contribution
was that of Zhu et al. [94]. They studied the differences in the tribological behavior of 316 L
stainless steel produced using the SLM process depending on the counterpart used and in
comparison, with a conventionally produced reference. With a soft brass counterpart, a
slight reduction in friction and wear occurred in SLM-printed samples in lubricated tests
on a ring-on-disc tribometer. The authors attributed the effect to the grain refinement in
the SLM process. With a hardened counterpart made of an ion nitride 38CrMoAl steel,
the differences in friction and wear increased, with plastic deformation occurring in the
316 L samples. Another paper dealing with SLM-printed 316 L specimens is from Li
et al. [95]. In tests using a linear reciprocating tribometer under dry sliding with E-52100
hardened steel balls, different loads and print orientations were investigated. The print
orientation had no significant effect on friction and wear. At higher temperatures up to
600 ◦ C, the COF continued to decrease, while wear reached its maximum at 200 ◦ C and
then decreased with increasing temperature. This could be attributed to the formation
of a wear-resistant oxide layer at higher temperatures. The influence of surface pores
from the SLM process on the tribological behavior of 316 L was investigated in [96]. A
shorter laser exposure time increased the porosity of the printed pins. These were tested
under mixed lubrication conditions as well as hydrodynamic conditions on a pin-on-disc
tribometer against hardened 38CrMoAl discs. Lower density reduced hardness but resulted
in improved lubrication and reduced friction in the experiments.
The porosity in the contact area is particularly decisive for tribological behavior. In
their work, Chatterton et al. [97] investigated the use of SLS-produced 316 L tilting-pad
journal bearings with integrated cooling channels to reduce the temperature in the thermo-
elastohydrodynamically lubricated (TEHL) contact and compared the experimental results
with TEHL simulations. A multichannel design achieved the best cooling effect. In [98],
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 26 of 43

M3:2 high-speed steel was produced using the SLM process under modified manufacturing
parameters and was compared with conventional cast steel and hot-isostatic-pressed sam-
ples. In addition to the analysis of the microstructure and hardness, pin-on-paper wear tests
were carried out. The samples produced using the SLM process showed comparable behav-
ior to the conventionally produced samples. The wear of 17-4 PH manufactured in LB-PBF
under lubrication and dry conditions was investigated by Nezhadfar et al. in [99]. The ad-
ditively manufactured specimens showed less wear under dry conditions and higher wear
under lubricated conditions, compared with the conventionally manufactured specimens.
To improve the tribological behavior, Kovaci et al. [100] investigated the effects of plasma
oxidation on friction and wear in LPBF-fabricated titanium (Ti) specimens compared with
forged ones. In addition to the analysis of the microstructure and hardness, pin-on-disc
tribometer tests were performed under dry conditions and with simulated body fluid. Due
to the rougher surface, friction was higher in the additively manufactured specimens, but
the wear rate was lower due to higher hardness, a deeper TiO2 diffusion layer, and changes
in microstructure. Li et al. [101] investigated the influence of a spherical Ti6Al4V powder
with 10% silver (Ag) content. The Ag formed a lubrication layer, which led to less friction
and reduced wear. The powders produced in the combustion reaction showed improved
tribological behavior compared with the powders from the gas atomization process. The
influence of the scanning strategy and a subsequent heat treatment in the SLM process
was investigated using the example of the material Al-Si12 in [102] in comparison with cast
samples. The untreated SLM samples showed the lowest wear rate in the pin-on-disc test.
The use of the checkerboard scanning strategy resulted in less wear compared with a single
melt strategy due to less porosity.
One promising approach to improve the tribological behavior is to reinforce the
additively manufactured components with a ceramic or ceramic-based coating or targeted
oxide formation. By using micro-arc oxidation, Yan et al. [103] succeeded in significantly
reducing the wear of Ti6Al4V produced using the SLM process in dry wear tests on a
ball-on-disc tribometer. With longer treatment durations, the wear decreased further. The
roughness increased, and the layer buildup decreased with a longer treatment duration.
Alkelae et al. [104] examined the potential of the LPBF process to produce nickel–aluminum–
bronze with a high density and improved tribological behavior and mechanical properties.
The authors compared the results with other values in the literature and reported improved
mechanical properties and tribological behavior.
To investigate the potential of AM in biomedical applications, Zhou et al. [105] com-
pared the wear behavior of SLM-produced Ti6Al4V in tribometer tests with forged samples.
Artificial saliva was used as a lubricant. In addition to a higher hardness rate of the SLM
specimens due to changes in their microstructure, less wear was observed. However,
this behavior is strongly direction-dependent. The wear of the SLM specimens was high-
est when the tests were carried out in the direction of the melted paths. In many cases,
the post-treatment of additively manufactured samples is necessary. Therefore, Lizzul
et al. [106] studied the same material Ti6Al4V with respect to its machinability. Due to the
anisotropy of the material, a vertical printing orientation led to a significantly increased
wear on the milling tool compared with a horizontal printing orientation. An influence
on the surface quality of the post-processed parts was also evident. For use in mining
applications, Rahmani et al. [107] investigated how functional lattices filled with metal
diamond composites can be produced in a combined SLM process with spark plasma
sintering (SPS). In experiments, it was shown that wear can be increased using a suitable
material composition. Another approach for hard, wear-resistant components produced
using the SLM process was explored in [108] using Ti6Al4V as an example. Electron beam
irradiation significantly increased the hardness of the surface and thermal air oxidation led
to very hard oxide layers on the surface but also to an increased surface roughness. By com-
bining both processes, a particularly high wear resistance was achieved. The relationship
between the wear behavior and the subsequent heat treatment and the resulting porosity
of SLM-printed 316 L specimens was examined in [109]. Wear could be reduced through
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 27 of 43

heat treatment at higher temperatures. The authors considered the reduced porosity as the
main reason. However, in dry-running tribometer tests, the conventionally manufactured
specimens had the highest wear resistance. Mechanical post-treatment is also suitable for
reducing the wear of AM components. Tascioglu et al. [110] compared the wear of Inconel®
625 samples from SLM depending on the process parameters of a finish-milling post-
treatment process. A high feed rate led to the best wear behavior in the dry reciprocating
tribometer tests. In their work, Upadhyay et al. [111] compared the tribological behavior
of 316 L on a ball-on-disc tribometer additionally with scratch tests, where the deter-
mined COFs were slightly lower than the tribometer. The samples produced using the
LPBF process showed less friction and wear than conventionally produced samples. Yang
et al. [112] used an AlCrFeCoNi high-entropy alloy to coat a stainless steel substrate. The
tests demonstrated high hardness and wear resistance of the coating.
In many technical applications, the focus is on investigating the wear behavior. How-
ever, in applications where corrosive environmental conditions are present, a separate
investigation of corrosive and tribocorrosive behavior is also of crucial importance. This ap-
plies in particular to applications in the biomedical field, for example, in implants. In [113],
the tribological and tribocorrosive behavior of a Co-Cr-Mo alloy produced using the SLM
process was improved via post-treatment with ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification
(UNSM). The behavior was best with post-treatment at a high temperature of about 500 ◦ C.
Additionally, for possible biomedical applications, Tekdir et al. [114] investigated a coating
of Ti6Al4 applied to 316 L using the SLM process, which was additionally plasma-oxidized
to produce a wear-resistant ceramic coating. In dry tribometer tests on Al2 O3 balls, a
significantly improved wear resistance and hardness could be observed. In [115], the au-
thors subsequently investigated the corrosion behavior of 316 L coated with Ti6Al4V. After
fabrication using the SLM process, the plasma oxidation of the surface was performed to
produce a ceramic TiO2 coating. This significantly improved the corrosion behavior of the
surface. Hardness and corrosion resistance increased with treatment time and temperature.
Freitas et al. [116] used the SLM process to apply only a boride-reinforced thick coating on
a low-carbon steel substrate. Wear was significantly reduced by the coating, but friction
remained at a similar level. This demonstrates the potential of additive processes also for
the post-treatment of conventionally manufactured components.
One challenge of additively manufactured components in tribological applications
is their rough surface. Guenther et al. [117] therefore investigated how different post-
treatments affect pin-on-disc tribometer tests. The SLM-produced H13 steel samples had
the lowest friction rate when they were ground and polished. Polishing alone, as well as
subsequent laser texturing, increased friction compared with the initial printed condition.
Jeyaprakash et al. [118] investigated Inconel® 718 in their work. The additively manu-
factured LPBF specimens showed improved mechanical behavior and less wear in the
tribometer test under dry lubrication with oil-hardened nickel steel as the counterpart, com-
pared with the cast specimens. The influence of heat treatment with different temperatures
on the latter material was studied in [119]. Compared with wrought reference specimens,
a lower wear rate was achieved in tribometer tests under dry conditions with a tungsten
carbide ball, provided that the heat treatment would be correctly designed. The selection
of sufficient printing parameters is also relevant for the tribological performance of SLM
components. In [120], in addition to the tribological behavior, the friction-induced noise
emission of LAM-manufactured M50 samples was investigated when they were alloyed
with Sn-Ag-Cu and Ti3 C2 . The best tribological behavior as well as the minimum noise
emission could be determined for the M50-Sn-Ag-Cu-Ti3 C2 samples. Similar tests were
carried out by Quin et al. [121] for TC4 with different content of SnAgCu. The samples with
a content of 10 wt.% of SnAgCu achieved the best results in terms of tribological behavior
and noise emission. Sagbas et al. [122] explored how the parameters of scanning angle,
laser power, scanning speed, and hatch distance affect the tribological behavior of Ti6Al4V.
The scanning angle had the greatest influence on the statistical evaluation, followed by
the laser power. In [123], the effect of hexagonal prismatic textures directly applied in the
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 28 of 43

SLM printing process on the tribological behavior of 17-4 PH was investigated. Friction
and wear rates were lowest for the non-textured samples. However, the influences of the
texture geometry on the behavior could be observed. The manufacturing of composites in
LPBF was investigated by Verma et al. [124]. The addition of boron to Ti6Al4V significantly
increased microhardness and wear resistance in tribometer tests with increasing boron
content. For application in additively manufactured tools, the high-temperature behavior of
SLM-produced maraging steel was investigated in [125] in comparison with conventional
hot-work steel. At 600 ◦ C, friction and wear in the hot-strip drawing tribometer test were
comparable. At 700 ◦ C, the maraging steel failed earlier due to unstable friction.
One possibility to improve the tribological behavior of DMLS components is sub-
sequent shot peening. In [126], the authors investigated how the wear and corrosion of
specimens fabricated of 17-4 PH changed when they were shot-peened at different pres-
sures and with different blasting media. Shot peening with ceramic balls under a pressure of
0.6 MPa led thereby to the best results. The potential of graded Ag-multilayer graphene/TC4
alloy in tribological applications was determined in [127]. Compared with pure TC4, as well
as homogeneous Ag-multilayer graphene/TC4 alloy, improved friction and wear behavior
at different loads and temperatures could be demonstrated. For hydraulic applications,
Zhou et al. [128] investigated the influence of the printing direction and tube diameter on
the friction factors of 316 L tubes produced using SLM. The friction factors were higher than
those expected from classical turbulent theory. Both the pressure direction and the diameter
had an influence on the roughness and thus the flow behavior. In addition to the mi-
crostructure and mechanical properties, Acharya et al. [129] investigated the tribocorrosion
behavior and cytocompatibility of SLM-produced Co28Cr6Mo for implant applications.
The anisotropy in grain size and morphology resulted in a significant difference in mechan-
ical properties, as well as bio-tribocorrosion behavior and cytocompatibility, depending on
the printing orientation. The influence of air cooling and aging following heat treatment
was investigated in [130] for Ti6Al4V. In addition to a changed microstructure, hardness
and wear resistance could be increased compared with conventionally produced samples.
The effects on the tribological behavior of cryogenic lubrication were studied by Demirsöz
et al. [131] for 316 L steel produced with SLM. Compared with dry lubrication, minimum
quantity lubrication (MQL) and cryogenic lubrication achieved a significant reduction in
wear. The effect was even more pronounced with combined cryo + MQL lubrication. For
the same material, the influence of printing parameters on thermal stresses and tribological
behavior was investigated [132]. Thermal stresses correlated most with changes in laser
power. Tribological behavior improved at high laser power and low hatch spacing. The
possibility of a TiN coating on an additively printed Ti6Al4V substrate was analyzed by
Esfahani et al. [133] for biomedical applications. Compared with the wrought reference, a
very good wear-resistant coating could be produced, and even the corrosion was reduced.
The potential for tribological applications resulting from microstructure transformation
was investigated by Freitas et al. [134] in LPBF. Starting from 2205 duplex stainless steel,
the powder was printed without heat treatment, resulting in a ferritic microstructure.
Hardness and wear resistance were higher than for the hot-rolled duplex stainless steel,
and the corrosion resistance was comparable. In their work, Gao et al. [135] prepared a
TC4-Sn-Ag-Cu-Nb2C alloy in combination with microporous channels using the LAM
process to reduce friction and noise emissions. Compared with the pure TC4 and TC4-Sn-
Ag-Cu, friction and wear as well as noise emissions were reduced in tribometer tests. In
another work by Güneşsu et al. [136], the authors dealt with the mechanical reworking in
drag finish on LPBF samples manufactured using Ti6Al4V. In addition to a significantly
improved surface roughness, a higher hardness and thus reduced wear could be achieved.
Guo et al. [137] optimized the manufacturing parameters for the material 60NiTi using
the SLM process. In reciprocating sliding tests, improved wear resistance was achieved,
with suitable parameters compared with the cast samples. Huang et al. [138] performed
a systematic comparison of SLM specimens and forged ones fabricated using Ti6Al4V
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 29 of 43

under simulated body fluid lubrication. While the SLM specimens showed improved wear
resistance, the resistance to tribocorrosion was lower.
AM has great potential in the rapid provision of spare parts. For this reason, Klimek
et al. [139] investigated the performance of a slipper–retainer in an axial piston pump
under application conditions. Further operation with the additively manufactured compo-
nent was successful. However, the roughness of the other pump parts increased during
the test. To achieve an understanding of the prevailing lubrication regime in additively
manufactured LPBF components, in [140], the authors investigated how different types
of lubrication affect the lubricant film structure and thus the tribological behavior. An
elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) regime was achieved with simultaneous cryogenic
and minimum quantity lubrication, which is why the tribological behavior was best there.
The influence of heat treatment parameters was investigated in [141] for maraging steel
produced using SLM. Hardness was improved in all cases, and it was shown that an
intercritical heat treatment is promising. In [142], the LPBF process was used to produce
wear-resistant glass former coatings on steel substrates. The coatings were able to exhibit
high hardness and density, as well as high wear resistance. Santos et al. [143] investigated a
possible coating via the plasma electrolytic oxidation of Ti6Al4V for biomedical application
and demonstrated improved wear resistance compared with the untreated samples. The
post-treatment of Al-Si alloy via heat treatment and electric discharge alloying (EDA) was
investigated in [144]. The EDA treatment resulted in reduced wear for both the SLM
specimens and the cast specimens, while heat treatment resulted in a positive effect only for
the cast specimens. To reduce the wear of 316 L steel produced using LPBF, Yin et al. [145]
used carbon nanotube reinforcement. This resulted in increased hardness of the material
and, as a consequence, significantly reduced wear.

4.2.2. Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

The second powder-based process considered in this review is EBM. In contrast to
SLM, the powder is melted with an electron beam. In total, seven articles dealing with this
process were examined in this literature review. Among the first papers dealing with the
EBM process in a tribological context are those by Kim et al. [146]. The authors investigated
the influence of atmosphere gas carburizing on the tribological behavior of pure titanium
on a pin-on-disc tribometer. Post-treatment significantly increased the hardness, which
reduced the wear compared with the untreated samples. Friction was also less than in
the untreated samples and conventional titanium. Iakovakis et al. [147] examined the
influence of different carbide contents on the tribological behavior of tool steel in ball-on-
plate dry wear tests and scratch tests. The steel with a carbide content of 20% showed the
best tribological behavior in terms of friction and wear compared with the 8% and 25%
samples. Shamarin et al. [148] compared the wear behavior of 13Mn6 produced using
EBM with hot-rolled samples. However, a significantly increased wear resistance of the
additively manufactured samples was demonstrated in tribometer tests. The effect of high
temperatures on the tribological behavior of Ti6Al4V was studied in [149]. Due to the
formation of stable oxide glaze layers, the wear mechanism changed at higher temperatures
and, as a result, the wear of the samples was reduced. Subsequent heat treatment of Ti6Al4V
samples was studied in [150]. While water-quenching improved the tribological and wear
behavior under dry conditions, this was worsened due to cooling in the furnace. For the
application in tooling, Franke-Jurisch et al. [151] investigated the wear behavior of Fe-Cr-V
alloy in jet-wear and impact tests as well as in field tests with AM tools. In the jet-wear
tests, the additively manufactured specimens achieved a higher wear resistance than the
reference specimens.

4.2.3. Direct Energy Deposition (DED)

While most of the studies to date have dealt with additive processes using powder
beds, the number of studies focused on direct processes is comparatively small. Within the
scope of this literature study, eleven papers were found that dealt with DED (Figure 4b,c).
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 30 of 43

Among the first works considering the LAAM process is the one by Liu et al. [152]. The
authors investigated the coating of a cast iron with Inconel® 625/SS420 FGM. The Inconel®
625 coating between cast iron and SS420 produced a crack-free coating that showed good
wear behavior under both dry and lubricated conditions. In [153], the material Fe-8Cr-3V-
2Mo-2W was printed using the DED process and then heat-treated. In tribometer tests
with high-carbon steel and zirconia balls, the zirconia counter bodies lead to less wear. The
heat treatment resulted in poorer wear behavior regardless of the counterpart used. The
influence of laser power on wear behavior was investigated for the Inconel® 718 superalloy
using the LAM method [154]. Increased laser power reduced the micropores, and at a
power of 1200 W, the highest hardness and the minimum wear rate could be observed. The
influence of heat treatment on the wear behavior of M2 tool steel produced using DED was
investigated by Park et al. [155]. Compared with conventionally produced samples and
high wear-resistant steel produced using DED, M2 showed higher wear resistance. The
heat treatment also reduced wear in some load cases. Parvaresh et al. [156] investigated
the anisotropy of WAAM-produced stainless steel 347 in terms of mechanical properties
and tribological behavior as a function of the manufacturing process. Inter-layer cold
working led to increased anisotropy in the tensile tests and at the same time to the higher
hardness of the specimens, which resulted in increased wear resistance and lower friction.
Xie et al. [157] used the DED process to deposit a wear- and corrosion-resistant tantalum–
zirconium layer on a Ti6Sl4V substrate. The generated coating showed higher hardness
and corrosion resistance in a 0.5 mol/L H2 SO4 solution and significantly improved wear
resistance. For the use of WAAM in the field of Ni-based superalloys, Chigilipalli et al. [158]
compared the wear behavior of printed samples with wrought references and were able
to demonstrate increased hardness as well as wear resistance in dry sliding wear tests.
In [159], the DED process was also used to create a coating on a substrate surface. The
substrate used was cast iron, on which a high-manganese steel was deposited. The wear
behavior was strongly load-dependent but hardly speed-dependent, and at high loads, the
high-manganese steel coating significantly improved the wear behavior.
In contrast to the previously mentioned work, Treutler et al. [160] fabricated samples
of CoCrFeMoNiV from wire material using the WAAM process. By suitable process control,
it was possible to achieve good yield strength and wear resistance in the manufactured
samples. In their work, Xu et al. [161] used the DED process to produce thin Fe-based
stainless-steel coatings and investigated the effect of printing speed on corrosion and wear
resistance. Higher speeds led to higher hardness and improved corrosion resistance. The
wear resistance, however, could not be further improved above a certain level. Zhao
et al. [162] investigated the effect of lanthanum oxide on the tribological behavior of
additively manufactured LDD iron–chromium alloy samples. A shorter running-in time
and reduced wear were observed with increasing Ta2 O3 content.

4.2.4. Special and Combined Processes

The previous sections summarized the studies that dealt with the usual direct applica-
tion processes, as well as powder beds. In addition, there are some contributions with a
tribological context that cannot be classified under the typical AM manufacturing processes.
These are summarized below.
Hao et al. [163] fabricated an Inconel® 625 layer on an H13 substrate using a hybrid
AM process, in which a layer created via multilayer laser cladding was subsequently CNC
milled and post-treated with ultrasonic surface rolling. The generated layer showed im-
proved wear behavior in high-temperature tribometer tests. An electron-beam-based
method for joining the prepositioned wires of Ti6Al4V was presented by Manjunath
et al. [164]. They investigated the influence of load, velocity, and sliding distance on
the tribological behavior of the fabricated specimens in an extensive experimental design
and created a predictive model. The dominant factor was the load. Vaz et al. [165] com-
pared and combined different thermal spraying processes and materials to produce a wear-
and corrosion-resistant surface on steel substrates. A dense maraging layer was produced
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 31 of 43

via cold-gas spray coating and the deposition of cermets using high-velocity oxyfuel sig-
nificantly reduced sliding wear and water erosion. Kayalı et al. [166] used electro-spark
deposition to produce Inconel® 718 coatings on H13 tool steel. The coatings were sub-
sequently boronized, which further improved hardness and wear resistance. However,
the as-deposited coating had the best corrosion resistance. A composite coating with TiC
was produced by Niu et al. [167] on a Ti6Al4V substrate using an ultrasonic-assisted LAM
process. The use of ultrasound significantly reduced the amount of unmelted TiC and
increased the hardness, but the COF also increased.

4.2.5. Comparison of Different AM Processes

Most of the work investigated dealt with the tribological behavior of additively manu-
factured metal components from a special process. In addition, there were three papers in
this systematic literature review that compared different manufacturing processes. Using
the example of pure titanium for medical applications, Attar et al. [168] compared the SLM,
LENS, and WAAM processes in terms of the resulting mechanical and tribological behavior.
The samples produced using the SLM process had the highest yield and ultimate tensile
strength as well as the highest hardness and, as a result, the best wear resistance. The
specimens manufactured using the WAAM process, on the other hand, showed the highest
ductility and the lowest wear resistance. In contrast, Li et al. [169] found no significant
differences in wear for the titanium alloy Ti6Al4V produced using SLM, EBM, as well as
conventionally. They also investigated the behavior at high temperatures and showed
that the wear rate was not significantly affected by temperature, regardless of the process.
Finally, in [170], self-lubricating Al-WS2 composites were produced using LPBF as well as
spark plasma sintering. In dry tribometer tests, the LPBF samples exhibited slightly better
tribological behavior.

4.3. Ceramics/Cermets
The third group of materials considered in the evaluation of the literature deals with
ceramics and their integration into metallic matrices, the so-called cermets. There is no fur-
ther subdivision, as only 6 of 103 publications are classified in this section. The publications
considered in the following are summarized in Table 4. Basically, the research on the tribo-
logical behavior of additively manufactured ceramics and cermets deals with aluminum
oxide (Al2 O3 ) [171,172], zirconium oxide (ZrO2 ) [172,173], silicon carbide (SiC) [174], tung-
sten carbide/cobalt (WC/Co) [175] and chromium carbide (CrC) in a WC/Co matrix [176].
These are produced using different AM processes depending on the raw material as de-
scribed in previous sections: SLM [171,175], EBM [176], DLP [172,173], SLA [173], binder
jetting [172,174], and material jetting [172].
Gu et al. [171] investigated the tribological behavior of Al2 O3 /AlSi10Mg composite
material on a ball-on-disc tribometer under dry lubrication conditions against a GCr15
bearing steel ball at varying loads, sliding speeds, and during a long-term test. The re-
sults showed, on the one hand, a higher COF and wear rate with increasing load and,
on the other hand, a lower COF and wear rate with increasing sliding speed. In that
case, the dominant wear mechanisms identified during the tests related to oxidation wear
and abrasive wear. A second study by Schiltz et.al. [172] was also focused on Al2 O3 and
compared the tribological behavior to ZrO2 . The ceramic specimens were printed in three
different AM processes (photopolymerization, binder jetting, and material jetting) and
were tribologically analyzed on a pin-on-disc tribometer against counterparts, which were
flat discs of Al2 O3 and ZrO2 under water lubrication. The tribological behavior of ZrO2
revealed no significant difference, independent of the printing process. With respect to
Al2 O3 , photopolymerization was identified as the most favored in terms of tribological
performance. Another study by Kim et al. [173] relates not to basic research but to an
application of dental prostheses (dental crowns) fabricated using zirconia. The specimens
were printed using DLP and SLA processes and were compared with conventional milled
ones. Wear tests were performed on a chewing simulator up to 120,000 cycles with a
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 32 of 43

stainless-steel spherical indenter, and subsequently, the fracture strength was determined.
Preloading in the chewing simulator did not result in a significant difference in terms
of volume loss. The additively manufactured zirconia crowns performed comparably or
better in terms of fracture strength and antagonist wear after simulated masticatory move-
ment compared with the milled crowns. Amanov et al. [174] printed SiC specimens using
binder jetting process and afterwards applied a thin layer to the substrate surface using
the ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification technique. Wear tests were performed
on a reciprocating motion tribometer against a Si3 N4 ball. Very low wear coefficients
(2.61 × 10−12 mm3 /Nm) were observed compared with additively manufactured polymer
or metal substrates. The applied coating marginally reduced the wear rate at room temper-
ature but significantly reduced it to 6.46 × 10−13 mm3 /Nm at higher temperatures. The
reduction in COF was not significant.
The study by Köhn et al. [175] focused on the material class of cermets. They additively
manufactured tungsten carbide/cobalt (WC/Co) specimens using the SLM process and
compared the tribological behavior with physical vapor deposition (PVD)-coated (WC/Co)
steel substrates. In wear tests (reciprocating sliding) against WC/Co balls, the additively
manufactured specimens outperformed the conventional PVD coatings in terms of wear
rate. After the run-in phase, a similar coefficient of friction of ~0.35 was observed. Another
paper by Iakovakis et al. [176] compared EBM-printed CrC-rich WC-Co carbide specimens
under various tribological conditions. Ball-on-disc tests were performed using steel (100Cr6)
balls and ceramic (Al2 O3 ) balls at different load conditions. The use of ceramic balls
revealed no load dependence with respect to COF, in contrast to a higher wear rate at
higher loads. When a steel ball served as a counterpart, the COF increased with increasing
load, but surprisingly, the wear rate was reduced by 56.4%.

Table 4. Overview of research analyzed in tribology of additively manufactured materials (ceramics

and cermets).

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Comparison of Ball-on-disc
Identification of Higher load →
load, sliding (rotatory
tribological higher wear and
velocity, and Basic movement; dry;
[171] behavior and SLM COF; higher
long-time test of research counterpart
influence of test velocity → lower
Al-based GCr15 bearing
parameters wear and COF
ceramics steel ball)
ZrO2 : no
Pin-on-disc significant
Identification of
Comparison of (rotatory difference for the
the influence of Photo-
printing movement; water printing processes;
the printing Basic polymerization,
[172] processes lubricated; Al2 O3 : Photopoly-
process on research Binder Jetting,
of Al2 O3 counterparts flat merization
tribological Material-Jetting
and ZrO2 discs of Al2 O3 exhibited the best
behavior
and ZrO2 ) tribological
performance
Wear test Zirconia crowns
Identification of (chewing printable;
Comparison of
the wear behavior simulator; dry; comparable/better
[173] printing methods Biomedical DLP, SLA
of printed/milled stainless-steel wear behavior
and milled ZrO2
dental prostheses spherical than milled
indenter) specimens
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 33 of 43

Table 4. Cont.

Manufacturing
Ref. Topic Objective Application Methodology Findings
Process
Wear tests
Identification of
(reciprocating
the influence of
Comparison of movement; UNSM coatings
the USNM Basic
[174] USNM coatings Binder Jetting lubricated with reduced wear rate
coatings on research
on SiC parts jet fuel; and COF
tribological
counterpart
behavior
Si3 N4 ball)
Comparison of Identification of
WC/Co-printed
printed WC/Co tribological Wear test
samples
samples in behavior of the Basic (reciprocating
[175] SLM outperformed PVD
contrast to WC/Co printed research movement; dry;
coating in
PVD coated samples and WC/Co ball)
wear rate
steel samples PVD coatings
Al2 O3 ball: COF
no loading
Comparison of dependence, but
loads and counter Identification of Ball-on-disc the wear rate
Basic
[176] bodies of printed the tribological EBM (reciprocating increased with load;
research
cemented behavior movement; dry) 100Cr6 ball: higher
carbides parts COF with higher
load, but lower
wear rate

5. Conclusions and Outlook

Within the scope of our literature analysis, it was possible to identify some current
focal points in which most tribological research is currently taking place in combination
with additive manufacturing. On the process side, it can be stated that the EAM process is
most frequently used for plastics, accounting for 16 of the 20 articles examined. The reason
for this is that this is a comparatively simple and inexpensive process with high market
penetration, even in the private user sector. In the metal sector, powder-based processes
are used most frequently, with the SLM process accounting for the largest share, with 53 of
the 79 contributions considered. Here, it can be assumed that the high interest in the SLM
process is related to its frequent use in industry. In the case of ceramic AM processes, on
the other hand, no trend toward a particular process can be observed, and with a total of
six contributions, this was also the lowest proportion.
Regarding the application focus, it was possible to determine that in all three material
categories examined, the focus is still on the scientific fundamentals and the understanding
of friction and wear mechanisms of additively manufactured components, even if a fine
subdivision was not completely possible here in some cases. In the case of plastics, in
addition to 16 contributions from the field of basic research, 2 contributions focusing on
biomedical research were also identified. With a total of 11 contributions, there was also
a comparatively high level of interest in the area of metallic materials. In addition, there
were four contributions with a reference to hydrodynamic applications. Additionally, in
the case of ceramic materials, not only one contribution related to biomedical applications
but also contributions from the field of basic research could be identified. An overview of
the applications investigated can be found in Figure 5. In the future, it will be interesting
to observe to what extent the knowledge gained from basic research in the last few years
can be transferred to applications. It will also be exciting to see in which tribological
applications AM finds a foothold besides biomedical ones.
 were four contributions with a reference to hydrodynamic applications. Additionally, in
the case of ceramic materials, not only one contribution related to biomedical applications
but also contributions from the field of basic research could be identified. An overview of
the applications investigated can be found in Figure 5. In the future, it will be interesting
to observe to what extent the knowledge gained from basic research in the last few years
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 34 ofap-
can be transferred to applications. It will also be exciting to see in which tribological 43
plications AM finds a foothold besides biomedical ones.

Figure5.5.Overview
Figure Overviewofof
the applications
the addressed
applications withwith
addressed (a) polymers, (b) metals,
(a) polymers, and (c)
(b) metals, cermet
and materials.
(c) cermet ma-
terials.
In addition to applications and objectives, it is also interesting to see which materials
are currently used
In addition to in the tribological
applications context ofitadditive
and objectives, manufacturing.
is also interesting In thematerials
to see which case of
plastics, ABS (seven contributions), PLA (six contributions), and PETG (three contributions)
are currently used in the tribological context of additive manufacturing. In the case of
were studied
plastics, ABSmost
(sevenfrequently. In the PLA
contributions), case (six
of metallic materials,
contributions), thePETG
and focus(three
was primarily
contribu-
on titanium materials, with a total of 25 contributions, with the alloy Ti6Al4V being
tions) were studied most frequently. In the case of metallic materials, the focus was pri-
investigated in 21, followed by stainless steel, with 18 contributions. There, 316 L was used
marily on titanium materials, with a total of 25 contributions, with the alloy Ti6Al4V being
in 14 contributions. In addition, different types of steel (16 contributions) and Ni-based
investigated in 21, followed by stainless steel, with 18 contributions. There, 316 L was
Lubricants 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW used
33 of 42
materials (10 contributions) were investigated more frequently. In the case of ceramic
in 14 contributions. In addition, different types of steel (16 contributions) and Ni-based
materials, no meaningful listing could be established due to the few contributions as well
materials (10 contributions) were investigated more frequently. In the case of ceramic ma-
as the mixed materials used. The use of individual materials in AM processes is often
terials,
related nowhich
to meaningful listing
filaments, could beorestablished
powders, other basedue to the few
materials contributions
are available as equip-
for the well as
also related to which filaments, powders, or other base materials are available for the
the mixed
ment used. materials used. of
The proportion The use of individual
materials materials
used is shown in AM processes ispolymeric
often also
equipment used. The proportion of materials used isinshown
Figure 6 for
in metal
Figure 6 and
for metal and
materials. materials.
polymeric

Figure 6. Overview
Figure 6. Overview of
of the
the used
used materials
materials for
for (a)
(a) polymers
polymers and
and (b)
(b) metals.
metals.

Based
Based on
on this
this analysis,
analysis, it
it is
is assumed
assumed thatthat tribological
tribological behavior
behavior will
will increasingly
increasingly come
come
into
into focus
focus due
due to
to the
the growing
growing interest
interest in
in AM
AM processes
processes and
and their
their expected
expected use
use in
in areas
areas
such as sustainable spare part supply, individual products, or biomedical applications.
such as sustainable spare part supply, individual products, or biomedical applications.
Furthermore, the following future trends in the field of tribology of additively manufac-
tured components can be expected:
• Further fundamental research to understand how material selection, manufacturing
process, and post-treatment affect the tribological behavior of additively manufac-
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 35 of 43

Furthermore, the following future trends in the field of tribology of additively manufactured
components can be expected:
• Further fundamental research to understand how material selection, manufacturing
process, and post-treatment affect the tribological behavior of additively manufactured
components and the underlying mechanisms;
• The optimization of the manufacturing process, raw material, and post-treatment
that can achieve the best possible tribological behavior in the use case, as well as a
comparison of different processes in a use case to determine the ideal process
• Applications in the field of individual products, such as in medical technology or the
sustainable and rapid provision of spare parts, such as tools or machine elements;
• The generation of wear- and friction-optimized surface layers applied by means of AM
processes, as well as the subsequent coating of additively manufactured components
using additive or conventional coating processes;
• The functionalization of components in tribological applications through, e.g., inte-
grated cooling or lubrication channels or additional functional integration through the
possible design freedom.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.O., A.S., T.R. and S.T.; methodology, C.O., A.S., T.R.,
and S.T.; software, C.O., A.S., and T.R.; formal analysis, C.O., A.S., T.R., and S.T.; investigation, C.O.,
A.S., and T.R.; resources, S.T.; data curation, C.O., A.S., and T.R.; writing—original draft preparation,
C.O., A.S., and T.R.; writing—review and editing, S.T.; visualization, C.O., A.S., and T.R.; supervision,
S.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Acknowledgments: C. Orgeldinger, A. Seynstahl, T. Rosnitschek, and S. Tremmel greatly acknowl-
edge the continuous support of the University of Bayreuth.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

ABS Acrylnitril–butadien–styrol
ALM Additive layer manufacturing
AM Additive manufacturing
ASA Acrylnitril–styrol–acrylester
COF Coefficient of friction
DED Direct energy deposition
DLP Digital light processing
DMLS Direct metal laser sintering
EAM Extrusion-based additive manufacturing
EBM Electron beam melting
EB-DED Electron beam direct energy deposition
EB-PBF Electron beam powder bed fusion
EDA Electric discharge alloying
FFF Fused filament fabrication
GMAW Gas metal arc welding
LAAM Laser-aided additive manufacturing
LAM Laser additive manufacturing
LBF Laser bed fusion
LDD Laser direct deposition
Lubricants 2023, 11, 257 36 of 43

LENS Laser-engineered net shaping

LB-PBF Laser beam powder bed fusion
LPBF Laser powder bed fusion
LPBF-M Laser powder bed fusion–metal
LP-DED Laser powder direct energy deposition
MAO Micro-arc oxidation
MQL Minimum quantity lubrication
PA Polyamide
PBF Powder bed fusion
PBT Polybutylene terephthalate
PC Polycarbonate
PEI Polyetherimide
PES Polyether sulfone
PETG Polyethylene terephthalate glycol
PLA Polylactic acid
PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol
PVD Physical vapor deposition
SLA Stereolithography
SLM Selective laser melting
TEHL Thermoelastohydrodynamically lubrication
TPU Thermoplastic polyurethanes
WAAM Wire-arc additive manufacturing

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