Chapter 3

cell biology
 Themes of the first semester
•The Cell Nucleus
•The Nucleolus
•lysosome
•Centrioles
•Centrioles Function
•The Mitochondria and energy production
•References
 The Cell Nucleus
The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information
processing and administrative center of the cell. This organelle has two
major functions: it stores DNA, the cell's hereditary material, and it
coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary
metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).
A double-layered membrane, the nuclear envelope, separates the
contents of the nucleus from the cellular cytoplasm. The envelope is
riddled with holes called nuclear pores that allow specific types and sizes
of molecules to pass back and forth between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm. It is also attached to a network of tubules and sacs, called the
endoplasmic reticulum, where protein synthesis occurs, and is usually
studded with ribosomes.
 The Cell Nucleus

The semifluid matrix found inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm.

Within the nucleoplasm, most of the nuclear material consists of
chromatin, the less condensed form of the cell's DNA that organizes
to form chromosomes during mitosis or cell division.

The nucleus also contains one or more nucleoli, organelles that

synthesize protein-producing macromolecular assemblies called
ribosomes, and a variety of other smaller components, such as Cajal
bodies, speckles, Promyelocytic Leukemia (PML) bodies.
The Cell Nucleus
 The Nucleolus

The nucleolus is a membrane-less organelle within the nucleus that

manufactures ribosomes, the cell's protein-producing structures.
Through the microscope, the nucleolus looks like a large dark spot
within the nucleus. A nucleus may contain up to four nucleoli, but
within each species the number of nucleoli is fixed. In human cells
we find one nucleolus. After a cell divides, a nucleolus is formed
when chromosomes are brought together into nucleolar organizing
regions. During cell division, the nucleolus disappears.
The Nucleolus
 lysosome
A lysosome is a single membrane-bound organelle
found in many animal cells.They are spherical
vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes that digest
many kinds of biomolecules. A lysosome has a
specific composition, of both its membrane proteins
and its lumenal proteins. The lumen's pH (~4.5–5.0)
is optimal for the enzymes involved in hydrolysis,
analogous to the activity of the stomach. Besides
degradation of polymers, the lysosome is involved in
cell processes of secretion, plasma membrane
repair, apoptosis, cell signaling, and energy
metabolism.
 lysosome
Lysosomes are degradative organelles that act as the waste disposal
system of the cell by digesting used materials in the cytoplasm, from
both inside and outside the cell. Material from outside the cell is
taken up through endocytosis, while material from the inside of the
cell is digested through autophagy. They were discovered and named
by Belgian biologist Christian de Duve, who eventually received the
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974
 lysosome
Lysosomes contain more than 60 different enzymes, and have more
than 50 membrane proteins.Enzymes of the lysosomes are
synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and exported to the
Golgi.The enzymes are transported from the Golgi apparatus to
lysosomes in small vesicles, which fuse with larger acidic vesicles.
 Centrioles
All animal cells have two small
organelles known as centrioles.
The centrioles help the cell to
divide. Centrioles are seen the
process of mitosis and meiosis.
The centrioles together are
typically located near the nucleus
in the centrosome. Centrosomes
are granular mass that is the
organizing center for the
microtubules..
 Centrioles
The position of the
centrosome within the
centrosome is at right
angles to each other.
Centrioles are made of
nine bundles of
microtubules that are
arranged in a ring
 Centrioles
The centrioles play a major role in cell division. In animal cells the
centrioles play a major role in cell division but the plant cells have
the ability to reproduce even without the centrioles. In certain
animal cells, like the female oocytes, some cells have have shown
successful division even in the absence of the centrioles. The
absence of centrioles causes divisional errors and delays in the
mitotic process.
 Centrioles Function
•In higher animal cells the centrioles form the mitotic poles.
•The centrioles function as the microtubule organizing center; it is an
important event in major cellular process, that is cell division and
flagella formation.
•Each centriole gives rise to a new centriole. The centrioles that are
newly formed remain tightly attached to the parent centriole.
•At end of each cell cycle, the cell has two centrioles - one the
mother centriole and the other newly formed centriole which is the
daughter centriole.
 Centrioles Function
After segregation, the centrioles determine the position of the
nucleus and also influence the cellular organization in the new
formed daughter cells.
•The centrioles may produce flagella or cilia.
•The fiber of the tail of sperms also arises from the centriole.
•The dysfunctioning of the centrosome is also responsible for the
development of certain cancers.
Centrioles Function
 The Mitochondria
Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell because they
―burn or break the chemical bonds of glucose to release energy to
do work in a cell. Remember that this energy originally came from
the sun and was stored in chemical bonds by plants during
photosynthesis.

Glucose and other carbohydrates made by plants during

photosynthesis are broken down by the process of aerobic cellular
respiration (requires oxygen) in the mitochondria of the cell. This
releases energy (ATP) for the cell.
The Mitochondria
 The Mitochondria
The more active a cell (such as a muscle cell), the more mitochondria
it will have. The mitochondria are about the size of a bacterial cell
and are often peanut-shaped.

Mitochondria have their own DNA and a double membrane like the
nucleus and chloroplast. The outer membrane is smooth, while the
inner membrane is convoluted into folds called cristae in order to
increase the surface area.
 The mitochondria functions
The main function of mitochondria is the production of ATP.
This occurs by a process of cellular respiration, also known as aerobic
respiration, which is dependent on the presence of oxygen. (When
oxygen is limited, the chemicals that would otherwise be oxidized
are, instead, metabolized by anaerobic respiration, via a process that
is independent of the mitochondria.)

(2)
 The mitochondria functions
Release of heat in basal metabolism and release of heat when uncoupled
in brown fat cells.
Oxidation of short to medium length fatty acids in the β-oxidation cycle.

Production of water, which is necessary for desert rodents, long- distance

bird migrants, and whales.

Synthesis of certain amino acids by amination of certain Kreb’s cycle acids.

 The mitochondria functions
Synthesis of oxaloacetate for gluconeogenesis.
Synthesis of heme using succinyl-CoA.
Synthesis of steroid hormones, in conjunction with the SER.
Structure of Mitochondria
List of parts of a mitochondrion:
22"
Outer membrane of mitochondrion
Inner membrane of mitochondrion
also called the "Innermitochondrial membrane"
Cristae
F1F0 ATPases (also called F1F0-ATPases)
Intermembrane space
Matrix of the mitochondrion
Mitochondrial DNA (circular DNA)
Matrix granules
Ribosomes
 References
1. Xianghong Li Pitfalls in the pathological diagnosis of lymphoma Archived 2022-09-20 at the Wayback
Machine
2. Anderson JB, Webb AJ (1987). "Fine-needle aspiration biopsy and the diagnosis of thyroid features of
primary tumor type". Acancer". The British Journal of Surgery. "biopsy" Archived 2016-12-29 at the Wayback
Machine. Online Etymology Dictionary.
3. Zerbino DD (1994). "Biopsy: Its history, current and future outlook". Likars'ka Sprava / Ministerstvo
Okhorony Zdorov'ia Ukrainy
4. Sausville, Edward A. and Longo, Dan L. "Principles of Cancer Treatment: Surgery, Chemotherapy, and Biologic
Therapy", Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 16th Ed. Kaspar, Dennis L. et al., eds. p.446 (2005).
5. Dawson SJ, Tsui DW, Murtaza M, Biggs H, Rueda OM, Chin SF, Dunning MJ, Gale D, Forshew T, Mahler-Araujo
B, Rajan S, Humphray S, Becq J, Halsall, Wallis M, Bentley D, Caldas C, Rosenfeld N (2013). "Analysis of
Circulating Tumor DNA to Monitor Metastatic Breast Cancer". The New England Journal of Medicine.
6. rchives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine.
Thank you for listening