UPGRADING
CHEMISTRY
FORM 2
Introduction to
SALTS
Comprehensive tutorial notes
SALTS
1. (A) A salt is an ionic compound formed when the cation from a base combine with the anion derived from an
acid.
A salt is therefore formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced wholly/fully or partially/partly, directly or
indirectly by a metal or ammonium radical.
(b) The number of ionizable/replaceable hydrogen in an acid is called basicity of an acid.
Some acids are therefore:
(i) Monobasic acids generally denoted HX e.g.
HCl, HNO3, HCOOH, CH3COOH.
(ii) Dibasic acids; generally denoted H2X e.g.
H2SO4, H2SO3, H2CO3, HOOCOOH.
(iii) Tribasic acids; generally denoted H3X e.g.
H3PO4.
(c) Some salts are normal salts while other are acid salts.
(i)A normal salt is formed when all the ionizable /replaceable hydrogen in an acid is replaced by a metal
or metallic /ammonium radical.
(ii)An acid salt is formed when part/portion the ionizable /replaceable hydrogen in an acid is replaced by
a metal or metallic /ammonium radical.
Table showing normal and acid salts derived from common acids
Acid name Chemical Basicity Normal salt Acid salt
formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl Monobasic Chloride(Cl-) None
Nitric(V)acid HNO3 Monobasic Nitrite (NO3-) None
Nitric(III)acid HNO2 Monobasic Nitrate(NO2-) None
Sulphuric(VI)acid H2SO4 Dibasic Sulphate (SO42-) Hydrogen sulphate
(HSO4-)
Sulphuric(IV)acid H2SO3 Dibasic Sulphate (SO32-) Hydrogen sulphate
(HSO3-)
Carbonic(IV)acid H2CO3 Dibasic Carbonate (CO32-) Hydrogen carbonate
(HCO3-)
Phosphoric(V) H3PO4 Tribasic Phosphate(PO43-) Dihydrogen phosphate
Acid (H2PO42-)
Hydrogen diphosphate
(HP2O42-)
The table below show shows some examples of salts.
Base/alkali Cation Acid Anion Salt Chemical name of salts
NaOH + HCl - NaCl Sodium chloride
Na Cl
Mg(OH) 2+ H SO 2- MgSO Magnesium sulphate
2 Mg 2 4 SO 4
4 Magnesium hydrogen sulphate
Mg(HSO )
42
Pb(OH) 2+ HNO - Pb(NO ) Lead(II)nitrate
2 Pb 3 NO 32
3
Ba(OH) 2+ HNO - Ba(NO ) Barium(II)nitrate
2 Ba 3 NO 32
3
Ca(OH) 2+ H SO 2- MgSO Calcium sulphate
2 Ba 2 4 SO 4
4
NH OH + H PO 3- (NH ) PO Ammonium phosphate
4 NH 3 4 PO 4 3 4
4 4 Diammonium phosphate
(NH ) HPO
4 2 4 Ammonium diphosphate
NH H PO
4 2 4
KOH + H PO 3- K PO Potassium phosphate
K 3 4 PO 3 4
4
Al(OH) 3+ H SO 2- Al (SO ) Aluminium sulphate
3 Al 2 4 SO 2 42
4
Fe(OH) 2+ H SO 2- FeSO Iron(II)sulphate
2 Fe 2 4 SO 4
4
Fe(OH) 3+ H SO 2- Fe (SO ) Iron(III)sulphate
3 Fe 2 4 SO 2 42
4
(d) Some salts undergo hygroscopy, deliquescence and efflorescence.
(i) Hygroscopic salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the atmosphere but do not form a solution.
Some salts which are hygroscopic include anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (VI), anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride, and
potassium nitrate common table salt.
(ii)Deliquescent salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the atmosphere and form a solution.
Some salts which are deliquescent include: Sodium nitrate, Calcium chloride, Sodium hydroxide, Iron (II) chloride,
Magnesium chloride.
(iii)Efflorescent salts/compounds are those that lose their water of crystallization to the atmosphere.
Some salts which effloresces include: sodium carbonate decahydrate, Iron (II) sulphate heptahydrate, sodium
sulphate decahydrate.
(e)Some salts contain water of crystallization. They are hydrated. Others do not contain water of crystallization.
They are anhydrous.
Table showing some hydrated salts.
Name of hydrated salt Chemical formula
Copper(II)sulphate pentahydrate CuSO4.5H2O
Aluminium sulphate hexahydrate Al2 (SO4) 3.6H2O
Zinc(II)sulphate heptahydrate ZnSO4.7H2O
Iron(II)sulphate heptahydrate FeSO4.7H2O
Calcium(II)sulphate heptahydrate CaSO4.7H2O
Magnesium sulphate heptahydrate MgSO4.7H2O
Sodium sulphate decahydrate Na2SO4.10H2O
Sodium carbonate decahydrate Na2CO3.10H2O
Potassium carbonate decahydrate K2CO3.10H2O
Potassium sulphate decahydrate K2SO4.10H2O
(f)Some salts exist as a simple salt while some as complex salts. Below are some complex salts.
Table of some complex salts
Name of complex salt Chemical formula Colour of the complex salt
Tetraamminecopper(II)sulphate Cu(NH3) 4 SO4 H2O Royal/deep blue solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)nitrate Zn(NH3) 4 (NO3 )2 Colourless solution
Tetraamminecopper(II) nitrate Cu(NH3) 4 (NO3 )2 Royal/deep blue solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)sulphate(VI) Zn(NH3) 4 SO4 Colourless solution
(g)Some salts exist as two salts in one. They are called double salts.
Table of some double salts
Name of double salts Chemical formula
Trona(sodium sesquicarbonate) Na2CO3 NaHCO3.2H2O
Ammonium iron(II) sulphate FeSO4(NH4) 2SO4.2H2O
Ammonium aluminium sulphate Al2(SO4) 3(NH4) 2SO4.H2O
(h)Some salts dissolve in water to form a solution. They are said to be soluble. Others do not dissolve in water.
They form a suspension/precipitate in water.
Table of solubility of salts
Soluble salts Insoluble salts
All nitrate salts
All sulphate/SO42- salts except Barium(II) sulphate(VI)/BaSO4
Calcium(II) sulphate(VI)/CaSO4
Lead(II) sulphate(VI)/PbSO4
All sulphate/SO32- salts except Barium(II) sulphate(IV)/BaSO3
Calcium(II) sulphate(IV)/CaSO3
Lead(II) sulphate(IV)/PbSO3
All chlorides/Cl- except Silver chloride/AgCl
Lead(II)chloride/PbCl2(dissolves in hot water)
All phosphate/PO43-
All sodium,potassium and ammonium salts
All hydrogen carbonate/HCO3-
All hydrogen sulphate/ HSO4-
Sodium carbonate/Na2CO3, except All carbonates
potassium carbonate/ K2CO3,
ammonium carbonate (NH4) 2CO3
All alkalis(KOH,NaOH, NH4OH) except All bases
13 Salts can be prepared in a school laboratory by a method that uses its solubility in water.
(a) Soluble salts may be prepared by using any of the following methods:
(i)Direct displacement/reaction of a metal with an acid.
By reacting a metal higher in the reactivity series than hydrogen with a dilute acid, a salt is formed and hydrogen gas
is evolved.
Excess of the metal must be used to ensure all the acid has reacted.
When effervescence/bubbling /fizzing has stopped, excess metal is filtered.
The filtrate is heated to concentrate then allowed to crystallize.
Washing with distilled water then drying between filter papers produces a sample crystal of the salt. i.e.
M(s) + H2X -> MX (aq) + H2 (g)
Examples
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Pb(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2(g)
(ii)Reaction of an insoluble base with an acid
By adding an insoluble base (oxide/hydroxide) to a dilute acid until no more dissolves, in the acid, a salt and water
are formed. Excess of the base is filtered off. The filtrate is heated to concentrate, allowed to crystallize then washed
with distilled water before drying between filter papers e.g.
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)
CaO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
ZnO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)
CuO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
CuO (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l)
Ag2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
Na2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
(iii) Reaction of insoluble /soluble carbonate /hydrogen carbonate with an acid.
By adding an excess of a soluble /insoluble carbonate or hydrogen carbonate to dilute acid, effervescence
/fizzing/bubbling out of carbon (IV) oxide gas shows the reaction is taking place. When effervescence
/fizzing/bubbling out of the gas is over, excess of the insoluble carbonate is filtered off. The filtrate is heated to
concentrate, allowed to crystallize then washed with distilled water before drying between filter paper papers e.g.
PbCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
CaCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
MgCO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
Cu CO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Ag2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Na2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
K2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2KCl(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
NaHCO3 (s) + HNO3(aq) -> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
KHCO3 (s) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
(iv) neutralization/reaction of soluble base/alkali with dilute acid
By adding an acid to a burette into a known volume of an alkali with 2-3 drops of an indicator, the colour of the
indicator changes when the acid has completely reacted with an alkali at the end point. The procedure is then
repeated without the indicator .The solution mixture is then heated to concentrate, allowed to crystallize, washed
with distilled water before drying with filter papers. e.g.
NaOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
KOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> KNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
KOH (aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l)
2KOH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
2 NH4OH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
NH4OH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NH4NO3(aq) + H2O (l)
(iv)direct synthesis/combination.
When a metal burn in a gas jar containing a nonmetal, the two directly combine to form a salt. e.g.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)
2K(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2KCl(s)
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) -> Mg Cl2 (s)
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) -> Ca Cl2 (s)
Some salts once formed undergo sublimation and hydrolysis. Care should be taken to avoid water/moisture into the
reaction flask during their preparation. Such salts include aluminium chloride (AlCl 3) and iron (III) chloride (FeCl3)
1. Heated aluminium foil reacts with chlorine to form aluminium chloride that sublimes away from the source of
heating then deposited as solid again
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2AlCl3 (s/g)
Once formed aluminium chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour / moisture present to form aluminium
hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of hydrogen chloride gas.
AlCl3(s)+ 3H2 O(g) -> Al(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)
2. Heated iron filings reacts with chlorine to form iron(III)chloride that sublimes away from the source of heating
then deposited as solid again
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2FeCl3 (s/g)
Once formed, aluminium chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour / moisture present to form aluminium
hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of hydrogen chloride gas.
FeCl3(s) + 3H2 O(g) -> Fe(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)
(b)Insoluble salts can be prepared by reacting two suitable soluble salts to form one soluble and one insoluble.
This is called double decomposition or precipitation. The mixture is filtered and the residue is washed with
distilled water then dried.
CuSO4(aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) -> CuCO3 (s) + Na2 SO4(aq)
BaCl2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + 2KCl (aq)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
2AgNO3(aq) + MgCl2 (aq) -> 2AgCl(s) + Mg(NO3)2 (aq)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + (NH4) 2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2NH4NO 3(aq)
BaCl2(aq) + K2SO3 (aq) -> BaSO3 (s) + 2KCl (aq)
14. Salts may lose their water of crystallization , decompose ,melt or sublime on heating on a Bunsen burner flame.
The following shows the behavior of some salts on heating gently /or strongly in a laboratory school burner:
(a)effect of heat on chlorides
All chlorides have very high melting and boiling points and therefore are not affected by laboratory heating except
ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride sublimes on gentle heating. It dissociate into the constituent ammonia
and hydrogen chloride gases on strong heating.
NH4Cl(s) NH4Cl(g) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
(sublimation) (dissociation)
(b) Effect of heat on nitrate
(i) Potassium nitrate/KNO3 and sodium nitrate/NaNO3 decompose on heating to form Potassium nitrate/KNO2 and
sodium nitrate/NaNO2 and producing Oxygen gas in each case.
2KNO3 (s) -> 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
2NaNO3 (s) -> 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
(ii)Heavy metal nitrates salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and a mixture of brown acidic nitrogen (IV)
oxide and oxygen gases. e.g.
2Ca(NO3)2 (s) -> 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Mg(NO3)2(s) -> 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Zn(NO3)2(s) -> 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) -> 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Cu(NO3)2(s) -> 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Fe(NO3)2(s) -> 2FeO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(iii)Silver nitrate and mercury (II) nitrate are lowest in the reactivity series. They decompose on heating to form the
metal (silver and mercury) and the Nitrogen (IV) oxide and oxygen gas. i.e.
2AgNO3(s) -> 2Ag (s) + 2NO2 (g) + O2(g)
2Hg(NO3)2 (s) -> 2Hg (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(iv)Ammonium nitrate and Ammonium nitrate decompose on heating to Nitrogen (I) oxide (relights/rekindles
glowing splint) and nitrogen gas respectively. Water is also formed.i.e.
NH4NO3(s) -> N2O (g) + H2O(l)
NH4NO2(s) -> N2 (g) + H2O(l)
(c) Effect of heat on nitrate
Only Iron (II) sulphate, Iron (III) sulphate and copper (II) sulphate decompose on heating. They form the oxide, and
produce highly acidic fumes of acidic Sulphur (IV) oxide gas.
2FeSO4 (s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g)
Fe2(SO4) 3(s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g)
CuSO4 (s) -> CuO(s) + SO3(g)
(d) Effect of heat on carbonates and hydrogen carbonate.
(I)Sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate do not decompose on heating.
(ii)Heavy metal nitrate salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and produce carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon
(IV) oxide gas forms a white precipitate when bubbled in lime water. The white precipitate dissolves if the gas is in
excess. e.g. CuCO3 (s) -> CuO(s) + CO2 (g)
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
PbCO3 (s) -> PbO(s) + CO2(g)
FeCO3 (s) -> FeO(s) + CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) -> ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
(iii)Sodium hydrogen carbonate and Potassium hydrogen carbonate decompose on heating to give the corresponding
carbonate and form water and carbon (IV) oxide gas. i.e.
2NaHCO 3(s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
2KHCO 3(s) -> K2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(iii) Calcium hydrogen carbonate and Magnesium hydrogen carbonate decompose on heating to give the
corresponding carbonate and form water and carbon (IV) oxide gas. I. e.
Ca(HCO3) 2(aq) -> CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Mg(HCO3) 2(aq) -> MgCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
