Chapter 1

Unit 1

1.1 Basics and Definition of IoT

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a concept where physical objects, or ’things,’ are em-
bedded with sensors, software, and other technologies to connect and exchange data with other
devices and systems over the internet.
The concept began with devices known as identity communication devices. An example of
such a device is the Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tag, which is used for tracking and
identifying objects. By attaching RFID tags to objects, these items can be tracked, controlled,
and monitored remotely through the Internet.
Examples of IoT applications include:

• GPS-based Tracking: Monitoring location and movement of objects or individuals.

• Machine-to-Machine (M2M) Communication: Automated exchange of information

between machines.

• Connected Cars: Vehicles equipped with IoT technologies for navigation, safety, and
maintenance.

• Wearable Devices: Gadgets that communicate data about health or activity levels.

• Industry 4.0: The integration of IoT in manufacturing for process automation and opti-
mization.

IoT has enabled advancements like smart cities and is expected to play a significant role in
the development of self-driving cars.

1.1.1 IoT Definition

The Internet is a global network of connected servers, computers, tablets, and mobiles, adhering
to standard protocols for connectivity and communication. It supports the sending, receiving,
and sharing of information with remote servers, cloud platforms, and analytics systems.
In everyday language, ”thing” can refer to physical objects, actions, ideas, situations, or
activities. For IoT, ”thing” represents a physical object equipped with technology for commu-
nication over a network.
Definition of IoT: The Internet of Things is a network of physical objects embedded with
electronics, software, sensors, and connectivity. These ’things’ communicate with each other

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

and with other systems over the Internet, allowing for monitoring, coordination, and control
through networked data.
Another Definition: IoT is a network of physical objects or ’things’ integrated with elec-
tronics, software, sensors, and connectivity. This network enables objects to exchange data with
manufacturers, operators, and other connected devices. Each ’thing’ is identifiable through its
embedded system and can operate within the existing Internet infrastructure.

1.1.2 IoT Vision

The vision of IoT is to make everyday objects ’smart’ by embedding them with technology that
allows them to sense, compute, and communicate. These smart objects interact with remote
systems and people through various communication technologies like the Internet or Near-Field
Communication (NFC).
Examples of IoT Vision:

• Smart Umbrella: An umbrella with an embedded device connects to a weather service

via the Internet. It receives weather updates, analyzes the data, and alerts the owner about
weather conditions with LED indicators or notifications via NFC, Bluetooth, or SMS.

• Smart Streetlights: Streetlights equipped with sensors and communication devices re-
port their status to a central control station. The station monitors and controls the lights,
detects faults, and adjusts lighting based on traffic and ambient conditions.

1.1.3 Smart and Hyperconnected Devices

Hyperconnectivity: Hyperconnectivity refers to the use of multiple systems and devices to
remain constantly connected to networks, social media, and streams of information.

Smart Devices: Smart devices are those with computing and communication capabilities that
maintain constant network connections.

Examples:

• Smart Streetlights: Continuously connect to a central control station.

• Hyperconnected RFIDs: Track consignments throughout their journey, managing in-

ventory and supply chains.

General Framework for IoT:

Fig.1.1 shows a general framework for IoT using smart and hyperconnected devices, edge
computing and applications.

• Edge Computing: Involves processing data at the device level before sending it over the
Internet.

• Applications: Reporting, analysis, control, collaborations, and processes involving peo-

ple and business operations.

• Data Sources: RFIDs, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), and other sensors measuring
various parameters.

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

Figure 1.1: A general framework for IoT using smart and hyperconnected devices, edge com-
puting and applications

• Connectivity: Utilizes technologies like Bluetooth, ZigBee, NFC, and internet connec-
tions.

1.2 IoT Conceptual Framework

IoT can be conceptualized through various frameworks that describe the interactions and pro-
cesses involved in the IoT ecosystem. These frameworks illustrate how physical objects, sen-
sors, controllers, and communication technologies work together to create an interconnected
network of smart devices. Below are the conceptual frameworks and equations that provide a
deeper understanding of IoT.

1.2.1 Basic Conceptual Framework

Physical Object + Controller, Sensor and Actuators + Internet = Internet of Things
(1.1)
This equation describes a simple conceptual framework for IoT. For example, consider the
”Internet of Umbrellas”:
• Physical Object: The umbrella.
• Controller, Sensor, and Actuators: Embedded device that interacts with the umbrella.
• Internet: Connects the umbrella to a web service and mobile service provider.
This basic framework illustrates that IoT involves connecting physical objects to the internet
through controllers, sensors, and actuators to enable communication and functionality.

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

 Physical Controller,
Object Sensor, Internet
(Umbrella) Actuators

Figure 1.2: Basic Conceptual Framework

1.2.2 Advanced Conceptual Framework

Gather + Enrich + Stream + Manage + Acquire + Organise and Analyse (1.2)
This equation represents a more complex framework for IoT, particularly for enterprise
processes and services. The steps are as follows:

• Gather: Devices (things) collect data using sensors.

• Enrich: Data is processed and enhanced, e.g., transcoding at the gateway.

• Stream: Communication management subsystems handle data streams.

• Manage: Device management, identity management, and access management subsys-

tems process the data.

• Acquire: Data is stored in databases or data stores.

• Organise and Analyse: Data is organized and analyzed for business intelligence and
decision-making.

Enrich
Stream
Gather (Data
(Manage
(Devices processed
data
collect data) and
streams)
enhanced)
Organise
Manage
and Analyse
(Device and Acquire
(Analyze for
access man- (Store data)
decision-
agement)
making)

Figure 1.3: Advanced Conceptual Framework for IoT

1.2.3 Complex Conceptual Framework

Gather + Consolidate + Connect + Collect + Assemble + Manage and Analyse (1.3)
This framework, based on the IBM IoT conceptual model, outlines a comprehensive ap-
proach to managing IoT services using cloud-based processes and services. The steps are as
follows:

• Gather: Sensor networks collect data from devices.

• Consolidate: Data is transformed and consolidated at a gateway.

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

 • Connect: Data streams are communicated between levels using communication-management
subsystems.
• Collect and Assemble: Information services collect, assemble, and manage data.
• Manage and Analyse: Real-time analysis, data analytics, and intelligence are performed
using cloud infrastructure and data stores.

Gather Consolidate Connect

(Sensor networks (Transform and (Communicate
collect data) consolidate data) data streams)

Collect Manage and

Assemble
(Information Analyse
(Assemble and
services collect (Real-time analysis,
manage data)
and manage data) data analytics)

Figure 1.4: Complex Conceptual Framework for IoT

1.2.4 Applications of IoT Conceptual Frameworks

The conceptual frameworks of IoT have numerous applications, including:

• Machine-to-Machine (M2M) Communication Networks: Facilitates automated inter-

actions between devices.
• Wearable Devices: Monitors health and activity data.
• City Lighting: Manages streetlights for efficiency and maintenance.
• Security and Surveillance: Enhances security systems with smart technologies.
• Home Automation: Controls and manages home devices for convenience and energy
efficiency.

Smart Systems Components:

• Smart Devices: Nodes that consist of embedded computing and communication tech-
nologies.
• Smart Objects and Services: Interfaces, APIs, sensor data, and communication ports
that enable smart functionalities.
• User Interfaces (UIs): Provide interaction with smart devices and systems.

1.3 IoT Layered Architecture

In the IoT layered architecture, the traditional OSI model is adapted to better fit the specific
needs of IoT systems. The IoT model merges layers 5, 6, and 7 of the OSI model into a single
Application layer, reflecting the integration of various application-related functions within IoT
systems.

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

 OSI Model Physical Layer Things IoT Layered Model

Data Link Layer Connectivity/Edge Computing

Network Layer Infrastructure

Transport Layer Data Integration

Session Layer Data Analysis

Presentation Layer Applications

Application Layer People/Process

Figure 1.5: Comparison of OSI Model and IoT Layered Architecture

Layer 1: Things
The Things layer in the IoT architecture corresponds to the Physical Layer of the OSI model.
This foundational layer encompasses physical devices such as sensors, actuators, and con-
trollers that interact directly with the real world. These devices are responsible for capturing
and acting upon data from their environment, including examples like temperature sensors,
smart cameras, and robotic actuators.

Layer 2: Connectivity/Edge Computing

Connectivity/Edge Computing combines elements from the OSI model’s Data Link Layer and
Network Layer. It focuses on the communication protocols and technologies that enable data
transfer between devices and networks. This layer includes:

• M2M (Machine-to-Machine) protocols for device-to-device communication.

• Wi-Fi for network connectivity.

• Edge Computing capabilities that process data closer to its source, thereby reducing
latency and optimizing bandwidth usage.

Layer 3: Infrastructure
Infrastructure incorporates aspects of the OSI model’s Network Layer and some elements of the
Transport Layer. It provides the necessary computing resources and platforms for IoT opera-
tions, whether cloud-based (public, private, or hybrid) or on-premises. This layer is responsible
for:

• Managing data storage.

• Handling data processing.

• Supporting data analysis, forming the backbone that supports IoT systems.

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

Layer 4: Data Integration
Data Integration combines functions from the OSI model’s Transport Layer and Presentation
Layer. It focuses on aggregating data from various IoT devices and sources, preparing it for
further analysis. This involves:

• Data cleaning.

• Data transformation.

• Data normalization to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the data being processed.

Layer 5: Data Analysis

Data Analysis aligns with functions of the OSI model’s Presentation Layer and Application
Layer. It extracts valuable insights from the collected data using techniques such as:

• Data visualization.

• Reporting.

• Machine learning.

This layer is crucial for identifying patterns, trends, and anomalies that inform decision-making
processes.

Layer 6: Applications
Applications correspond to the OSI model’s Application Layer. This layer is dedicated to
developing software applications that leverage IoT data and insights to address specific use
cases. Examples include:

• Smart home automation.

• Industrial monitoring.

• Supply chain management solutions.

1.3.1 Layer 7: People/Process

People/Process extends beyond the traditional OSI model, focusing on the human and process
elements interacting with the IoT system. This layer involves:

• Decision-making based on data-driven insights.

• Integration of IoT solutions into various business workflows and processes.

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

1.4 M2M Communication Technologies
Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communication is a technology that facilitates direct communi-
cation between devices without human intervention. This capability is crucial for both IoT
(Internet of Things) and IIoT (Industrial Internet of Things) systems, allowing devices to ex-
change data, aggregate information, and derive comprehensive insights. M2M communication
plays a significant role in processing and analyzing data from various sources, thus providing a
broader perspective on the information gathered.
M2M communication enhances user capabilities by:

• Gathering Valuable Information: Enables collection of crucial data regarding various

processes.

• Improving Supply Chains: Streamlines operations and enhances efficiency in supply

chains.

• Predicting Maintenance Needs: Helps in forecasting potential maintenance require-

ments and avoiding costly errors.

• Monitoring Assets: Keeps track of expensive or redundant assets to optimize usage.

• Providing Value-Added Services: Facilitates services that rely on connectivity between

devices, such as smart watches or smartphones.

Although M2M technology is often associated with IoT, it is distinct in that it typically
involves direct point-to-point communication. M2M can be wired or wireless and may use its
own specific communication protocols. In contrast, IoT devices often communicate through
cloud servers for enhanced processing and storage capabilities.

Practical Examples of M2M Technology Applications

1. In-Vehicle Telemetry Services: Car manufacturers offer in-car connectivity services
that often include built-in Subscriber Identification Module (SIM) cards for internet ac-
cess. This connectivity allows real-time monitoring of various vehicle components, en-
abling manufacturers to assess the condition of parts and improve future models. Addi-
tionally, manufacturers can contact users if a part requires replacement, enhancing cus-
tomer service and vehicle maintenance.

2. Smart Meters: Smart meters are an example of IoT systems that utilize M2M communi-
cation to monitor electrical energy consumption in real-time. These meters allow energy
providers to track consumption patterns and optimize power generation and distribution
based on user data.

3. Smart Asset Tracking Services: Asset tracking is crucial for industries such as shipping
and logistics. Recent advancements in M2M technology enable businesses to use afford-
able GPS trackers to monitor the movement of assets in real-time. These trackers provide
data on fuel consumption, trip durations, and driver performance, improving operational
efficiency and process management.

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

 4. Supply Chain Management (SCM) Solutions: M2M technologies, including smart
barcode scanners, RFID systems, and GPS tracking, are essential for managing complex
modern supply chains. These technologies help businesses track raw materials, stock,
and finished goods throughout the manufacturing and retail processes, facilitating process
refinement and eliminating inefficiencies.

5. Wearable Technologies: Wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers,

use M2M communication to transmit data about physical activities, heart rates, and
other metrics to smartphones. These devices, which typically have limited processing
power, rely on smartphones for notifications and further processing. They generally use
short-range, low-bandwidth communication technologies to connect with smartphones
and provide real-time updates and alerts.

Exercise

Objective type Questions

Q 1.1. What is the first step in the IoT Conceptual Framework?

1. Consolidate
2. Gather
3. Connect
4. Assemble

Q 1.2. In the ”Manage and Analyse” phase, which of the following technologies is primarily
used?

1. Sensors
2. Data analytics
3. Wi-Fi
4. Edge Computing

Q 1.3. Which phase in the IoT conceptual framework involves the communication of data streams?

1. Gather
2. Collect
3. Connect
4. Manage

Q 1.4. In the IoT Layered Architecture, the ”Things Layer” corresponds to which layer in the
OSI model?

1. Physical Layer
2. Application Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

 Q 1.5. Which layer in the IoT Layered Architecture is responsible for data storage and process-
ing?

1. Connectivity Layer
2. Infrastructure Layer
3. Data Integration Layer
4. Applications Layer

Q 1.6. What is the main focus of the Connectivity/Edge Computing Layer?

1. Sensor data collection

2. Communication protocols and network connectivity
3. Data storage and analysis
4. User interaction

Q 1.7. M2M communication primarily involves:

1. Human-to-machine communication
2. Machine-to-machine communication
3. Cloud-to-device communication
4. User-to-cloud communication

Q 1.8. Which of the following is a practical example of M2M technology in the automotive
industry?

1. Smart meters
2. In-vehicle telemetry services
3. Home automation
4. Wearable fitness trackers

Q 1.9. M2M communication is typically used for:

1. Human-device interaction
2. Direct communication between machines
3. IoT application development
4. Wireless sensor networking

Q 1.10. Smart Meters are an example of M2M communication used to:

1. Track vehicle performance

2. Monitor electrical energy consumption
3. Control home devices
4. Provide GPS-based asset tracking

Q 1.11. Which of the following technologies is commonly used for real-time asset tracking in
logistics?

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

 1. Smart meters
2. RFID systems
3. Wearable technologies
4. Data visualization

Q 1.12. Wearable devices such as fitness trackers typically use M2M communication to connect
to:

1. Other wearables
2. Cloud servers
3. Smartphones
4. GPS systems

Q 1.13. The Data Integration Layer in the IoT architecture focuses on data cleaning, transforma-
tion, and normalization.

1. True
2. False

Q 1.14. Edge Computing is mainly concerned with storing and processing data on a centralized
cloud.

1. True
2. False

Q 1.15. M2M communication is often used in IoT to provide real-time data exchange between
devices without human intervention.

1. True
2. False

Short Questions
Q 1.16. Define the term IoT Conceptual Framework and briefly explain its purpose in IoT sys-
tems.

Q 1.17. What is the role of the ”Gather” stage in the IoT conceptual framework? Provide an
example of a device involved in this stage.

Q 1.18. How does the ”Connect” phase in IoT help in managing data streams between different
levels?

Q 1.19. What are the key differences between the OSI Model and the IoT Layered Architecture?

Q 1.20. Briefly explain the role of the Things Layer in the IoT Layered Architecture.

Q 1.21. What is Edge Computing, and how does it relate to the Connectivity/Edge Computing
Layer of the IoT architecture?

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

Q 1.22. What is the significance of Data Integration in IoT systems? Mention two key processes
involved in this layer.

Q 1.23. Explain the importance of the Applications Layer in IoT systems. Provide an example of
a practical IoT application in this layer.

Q 1.24. Define Machine-to-Machine (M2M) Communication and explain its relevance to IoT.

Q 1.25. List two practical examples of M2M technology applications and briefly describe their
benefits.

Q 1.26. What are Smart Meters, and how do they utilize M2M communication for IoT applica-
tions?

Q 1.27. Briefly explain how M2M technology is used in asset tracking and its significance in
supply chain management.

Q 1.28. What role do wearable devices play in IoT, and how do they use M2M communication
to enhance user experience?

Long Questions
Q 1.29. Describe the basic conceptual framework of IoT using the equation:

Physical Object+Controller, Sensor, and Actuators+Internet = Internet of Things.

Illustrate with a real-world example.

Q 1.30. Explain the advanced conceptual framework of IoT using the equation:

Gather + Enrich + Stream + Manage + Acquire + Organise and Analyse.

How does this framework apply to enterprise IoT systems?

Q 1.31. Discuss the concept of ’smart’ and ’hyperconnected’ devices in IoT. Provide examples to
illustrate their roles in real-world IoT applications.

Q 1.32. Explain the vision of IoT and how it aims to integrate smart objects into everyday life.
Use examples like the ’smart umbrella’ and ’smart streetlights’ to support your answer.

Q 1.33. Given an IoT system involving ’smart streetlights,’ explain how sensors and edge com-
puting can be used to optimize energy consumption and fault detection.

Q 1.34. Design a conceptual IoT framework for a ’smart farming’ system. Include components
like sensors, actuators, connectivity options, and edge computing in your explanation.

Q 1.35. Describe the Complex Conceptual Framework for IoT based on the IBM IoT model. Ex-
plain each step (Gather, Consolidate, Connect, Collect, Assemble, Manage and Analyze)
in detail, and discuss the importance of cloud-based processes in IoT data management.

Q 1.36. Compare the OSI Model with the IoT Layered Architecture by highlighting the key dif-
ferences and similarities. Focus on how the IoT model adapts the OSI layers to suit IoT
applications. Provide a detailed explanation of each IoT layer.

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi

Q 1.37. Explain the role of Machine-to-Machine (M2M) Communication in IoT systems. Dis-
cuss the various technologies used in M2M communication, and provide examples of
how M2M is applied in practical IoT scenarios such as smart meters, asset tracking, and
wearable devices.

Q 1.38. Discuss the application of the IoT Conceptual Framework in different industries. Choose
at least three sectors, such as smart cities, healthcare, and supply chain management, and
elaborate on how the IoT framework enhances efficiency and decision-making in each
case.

Q 1.39. Analyze the Data Integration and Data Analysis layers of the IoT architecture. Explain
how data is transformed, cleaned, and normalized, and discuss the importance of data
analytics, machine learning, and reporting in generating actionable insights from IoT
systems.

Q 1.40. Provide a detailed explanation of the practical examples of M2M Technology Applica-
tions in industries such as transportation, energy, and logistics. How does M2M commu-
nication enhance operational efficiency, reduce costs, and improve process management
in these fields?

Answer Key
Q1.1 (b) Gather

Q1.2 (b) Data analytics

Q1.3 (c) Connect

Q1.4 (a) Physical Layer

Q1.5 (b) Infrastructure Layer

Q1.6 (b) Communication protocols and network connectivity

Q1.7 (b) Machine-to-machine communication

Q1.8 (b) In-vehicle telemetry services

Q1.9 (b) Direct communication between machines

Q1.10 (b) Monitor electrical energy consumption

Q1.11 (b) RFID systems

Q1.12 (c) Smartphones

Q1.13 (a) True

Q1.14 (b) False

Q1.15 (a) True

Author: Satya P. Singh, NSUT, Delhi