MK YADAV Sir's

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12 Booklets. 600 Pages.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 POST-INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION AND REORGANIZATION WITHIN THE COUNTRY 2-11
1.1 PARTITION LEGACY AND CHALLENGES FOR INDEPENDENT INDIA
1.2 NATIONAL INTEGRATION- CHALLENGES
1.3 NATIONAL INTEGRATION - EVENTS
1.4 CHRONOLOGICAL FORMATION/INTEGRATION OF STATES IN N-E INDIA
1.5 INTEGRATION OF TRIBALS
1.6 ROLE OF SARDAR PATEL IN INTEGRATION OF PRINCELY STATES
1.7 CONTRIBUTIONS OF DR. B.R. AMBEDKAR IN THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
1.8 ROLE OF VINOBA BHAVE IN INDEPENDENCE INDIA
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
2 ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH OFFICIAL LANGUAGES 12-16
2.1 LINGUISTIC REORGANISATION OF STATE ARGUMENT IN FAVOUR AND AGAINST
2.2 LANGUAGE ISSUE IN INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
2.3 MAJOR EVENTS OF LANGUAGE ISSUE
2.4 BENEFITS OF HAVING A NATIONAL LANGUAGE
2.5 THE ISSUE WITH LINGUISTIC MINORITY
2.6 MEASURES TAKEN TO ERADICATE THE PROBLEM OF LINGUISTIC MINORITIES
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
3 REGIONALISM 17-23
3.1 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO REGIONALISM
3.2 TYPES OF REGIONALISM
3.3 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF REGIONALISM
3.4 PRE-INDEPENDENCE REGIONAL MOVEMENTS
3.5 POST-INDEPENDENCE REGIONAL MOVEMENTS
3.6 IMPORTANCE AND RELEVANCE OF REGIONALISM
3.7 CHALLENGES POSED BY REGIONAL MOVEMENTS
3.8 SON OF SOIL DOCTRINE
3.9 RESOLVING REGIONALISM
3.10 INITIATIVES OF GOVERNMENT TO REDUCE REGIONALISM
3.11 WAY AHEAD
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
4 NAXALISM 24-28
4.1 ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION
4.2 EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF THE MAOIST MOVEMENT IN INDIA
4.3 CAUSES BEHIND NAXALITE MOVEMENT
4.4 IMPACT OF NAXALISM
4.5 GOVERNMENT’S APPROACH AGAINST NAXALISM
4.6 WAY AHEAD
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
5 INDIAN ECONOMY SINCE INDEPENDENCE 29-36
5.1 NEHRUVIAN ERA (1950S-1960s)
5.2 INDIAN ECONOMY BETWEEN 1965 TO 1980
5.3 INDIAN ECONOMY BETWEEN 1980 TO 1991
5.4 INDIAN ECONOMY SINCE 1991
5.5 LIBERALIZATION, PRIVATIZATION, AND GLOBALIZATION (LPG) REFORMS IN INDIA
5.6 INDIAN ECONOMY IN RECENT YEARS
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

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6 EDUCATIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA SINCE INDEPENDENCE 37-43
6.1 RADHAKRISHNAN COMMISSION (1948–49)
6.2 MUDALIYAR COMMISSION FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION IN 1952
6.3 KOTHARI EDUCATION COMMISSION (1964-66)
6.4 EDUCATION IN CONCURRENT LIST
6.5 NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY, 1986 (NEP)
6.6 ACHARYA RAMAMURTI COMMITTEE
6.7 RIGHT TO EDUCATION (86TH CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT ACT)
6.8 NEW EDUCATION POLICY (NEP) 2020
6.9 SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS
6.10 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) AND SOFTWARE
6.11 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND PHARMACEUTICALS
6.12 RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGIES
6.13 SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AND RESEARCH
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
7 WARS AND EMERGENCY AFTER INDEPENDENCE IN INDIA 44-46
7.1 INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR (1947-48)
7.2 INDIA-CHINA WAR (1962)
7.3 INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR (1965)
7.4 INDIA-CHINA WAR (1967)
7.5 INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR (1971)
7.6 KARGIL WAR (1999)
7.7 INTERNAL EMERGENCY (1975)

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POST-INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION AND

11 REORGANIZATION WITHIN THE COUNTRY
1.1 PARTITION LEGACY AND CHALLENGES FOR INDEPENDENT INDIA
Freedom came with the partition of the country. The year 1947 was a year of unprecedented violence and trauma of
displacement. It was in this situation that independent India started on its journey to achieve several objectives. Yet
the turmoil that accompanied independence did not make our leaders lose sight of the multiple challenges that faced
the new nation.

SOCIO- ECONOMIC SCENARIO AFTER INDEPENDENCE:

• Population and Work Force: According to 1951 census, our population was about 359 million of which 82.7%
of the population lived in villages. Thus, urban population Constituted only 17.3 %.
• Low level of economic development: Less job opportunities and low growth rate of incomes.
• Agricultural sector: About 85% of the country’s population lived mostly in villages and derived livelihood
directly or indirectly from agriculture.
- Agriculture sector continued to experience stagnation and, not infrequently, unusual deterioration.
Agricultural productivity became low.
• Industrial sector: India could not develop a sound industrial base under the colonial rule.
- There was hardly any capital goods industry to help promote further industrialization in India.
• Demographic condition: The overall literacy level was about 16 %. Out of this, the female literacy level was at
a negligible low of about 7 %.
- Water and air-borne diseases were rampant and took a huge toll on life.
- Epidemic diseases accounted for 5.1% of total mortality.
- Life expectancy was also very low—32 years in contrast to the present 69 years.
• Occupational structure: The agricultural sector accounted for the largest share of workforce, which usually
remained at a high of 70-75 % while the manufacturing and the services sectors accounted for only 10 and 15-
20% respectively.
• Foreign Trade In 1947-50: Exports, valued at less than 6% of our national income. Imports amounting to less
than 7%of our national income.
CHALLENGES FOR INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Broadly, independent India faced three kinds of challenge:
• Immediate challenge: To shape a nation that was united, yet accommodative of the diversity in our society.
• To establish democracy: A democratic constitution is necessary but not sufficient for establishing a
democracy. The challenge was to develop democratic practices in accordance with the Constitution.
• To ensure the development and well- being: Of the entire society and not only of some sections. The real
challenge was to evolve effective policies for economic development and eradication of poverty.

These challenges can further be explained in details in following terms:

• Communal riots: Areas were supposed to be distributed on the basis of religions majority i.e. Muslim majority
areas built Pakistani territory and rest stayed with India. It created communal riots in country. leading to the
death of an estimated 1-2 million people.
• Mass Migration and Refugee Crisis: Approximately 10-15 million people migrated across the newly drawn
borders, with Hindus and Sikhs moving to India and Muslims to Pakistan.
• Refugee Crisis: Refugees faced severe hardships, including lack of food, shelter, and medical care.
• Breakdown of Law and Order: The violence overwhelmed the law enforcement agencies, leading to
widespread chaos and anarchy in many regions.

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• Administrative Challenges: The division of administrative machinery, military assets, railways, and other
infrastructure was a colossal task.
• Financial Complications: Equitably dividing the financial resources, including currency reserves, was complex
and contentious.
• Princely States issue: Over 500 princely states had to decide whether to join India or Pakistan or remain
independent. This led to political uncertainty and conflicts. For example, the Hyderabad and Junagadh issues.
• Redrawing Boundaries: The Radcliffe Line, demarcating the borders, was drawn hastily, often bisecting
villages, farmlands, and communities, causing confusion and disputes.
• Industrial and Trade Disruptions: Partition disrupted established economic and trade networks, particularly
affecting regions like Punjab and Bengal.
• Agricultural Impact: The division of fertile agricultural lands and irrigation systems, especially in Punjab, led
to significant agricultural challenges.

1.2 NATIONAL INTEGRATION- CHALLENGES:

During the era of independence, India was divided into two distinct political entities:
• British Provinces: Directly under the governance of the British administration, and
• Princely States: Ruled by indigenous royals but acknowledging the supreme authority of the British Crown.

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- More than 500 such princely states existed. These states encompassed approximately 48% of the territory
of India prior to its independence.
PRINCELY STATES CHALLENGES DURING INDEPENDENCE:
• Preservation of Identity: Many princely states cherished their regional identities, fearing cultural dilution post-
integration
• Demand for independence: Some of the princely states wanted to remain independent. For example,
Hyderabad, Junagarh etc.
• Religious and Communal Divide: Communal tensions between Muslim-majority populations and Hindu rulers,
posing challenges to integration efforts. For example, Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Junagarh.
• Language and Cultural Diversity: Each princely state has their unique languages, customs, and traditions.
Balancing the preservation of local cultures with the forging of a unified Indian identity demanded sensitive
policies.
• Caste and Social Hierarchies: Deep-seated caste systems and social inequalities within princely states
necessitated efforts to combat discrimination, promote equality, and empower marginalized groups.

CHALLENGES IN NATIONAL INTEGRATION:

• Social: Casteism: In India, casteism is a major issue that requires immediate attention. To end this inequality
in our community, more action is required than just talking about it.
- Racial Diversity: India’s diversity presents a veiled threat to the nation’s unity because the country is made
up of so many different ethnic groups.
- Communalism: The narrow mindset that predominates over many religious identities is one of the major
threats to national cohesion.
- Communal Tensions and Partition: The partition of India in 1947 led to massive communal violence
between Hindus and Muslims, causing a significant loss of life and displacement.
• Economical: Income Inequality: Due to this financial gap, there is increasing animosity between the wealthy
and the poor. Without all of this harmony and fraternity, feelings of national integration cannot grow.
- Fiscal Deficit and Inflation: The post-independence period saw a substantial fiscal deficit and high
inflation.
- Dependence on Imports: India was heavily dependent on imports for essential goods, including food
grains and industrial machinery.
- Agrarian Economy: India’s economy was predominantly agrarian, with the majority of the population
dependent on agriculture. For example, about 85 % of the country’s population lived mostly in villages.
• Political: Regionalism: The regional or provincial mindset is yet another key impediment to national
integration.
- Princely States Integration: Integrating these diverse entities into the Indian Union was a major challenge,
as some rulers were reluctant to join the newly formed nation.
- Refugee Crisis: The partition led to a massive influx of refugees on both sides of the newly formed borders.
- Political parties: In democracies, political parties need to be there for building public opinion and political
awareness. Unfortunately, there are many parties that chase votes on the basis of caste, religion, creed
and region, disregarding the public and national interest.
• Cultural: Cultural differences seriously inhibit national integration. The divisions between the northern and
southern states, which frequently cause interpersonal conflict and enmity, are already symptomatic of it.
- Language Variations: There isn’t yet a single language that can be spoken throughout the entire country,
from Kashmir to Kanyakumari.
- Extremism: It is an act of spreading fear by threatening the people through illegal means to obtain selfish
interest.
- Provincialism: It is also a major obstacle in India’s national unity. The narrow sense of regionalism in
various states of the country is increasing mutual enmity between states

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SEPARATIST CHALLENGES (INTERNAL SECURITY):
• Kashmir Conflict: The accession of Jammu and Kashmir to India was contentious, leading to an ongoing dispute
with Pakistan.
- The region has experienced significant separatist movements, calling for either independence or merger
with Pakistan, resulting in prolonged conflict and instability.
• Naga Insurgency: The Naga tribes in the northeast sought independence from India soon after independence.
- The Naga National Council (NNC) declared independence in 1947, leading to decades of insurgency and
unrest, which continues in various forms even today.
• Assamese Separatism: Assam faced significant separatist sentiments, particularly from the United Liberation
Front of Assam (ULFA), which demanded an independent Assam.
- The insurgency, driven by ethnic and economic grievances, led to prolonged violence and instability in the
region.
• Punjabi Suba Movement and Khalistan Movement: The demand for a separate Punjabi-speaking state led to
the formation of Punjab in 1966. Later, the Khalistan movement emerged, seeking an independent Sikh state.
- The movement peaked in the 1980s, resulting in significant violence, including the Operation Blue Star
and the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
• Dravidian Movement: In Tamil Nadu, the Dravidian movement initially had separatist overtones, with
demands for a separate Dravidian state.
- Though the movement eventually integrated into the Indian political framework, its early separatist
agenda posed challenges to national unity.
• Mizo Insurgency: The Mizo National Front (MNF) launched an armed struggle for independence in the 1960s,
driven by grievances over the perceived neglect of the Mizo people.
- The insurgency ended with the signing of the Mizoram Peace Accord in 1986, integrating Mizoram more
fully into the Indian Union.
• Bodo Movement: The Bodos in Assam demanded a separate state of Bodoland. The movement involved both
peaceful protests and armed insurgency, leading to significant unrest in the region.
• Gorkhaland Movement: In West Bengal, the demand for a separate Gorkhaland state for the Nepali-speaking
population in the Darjeeling hills led to periodic agitations and violence, posing challenges to regional stability
and national integration.

COMMUNALISTIC CHALLENGES:
• A communal riot: In general, refers to a collective violent manifestation of one’s identity, ideas and beliefs,
etc. For example, Partition of India,1947, Anti-Sikh riots, 1984.
• Communal Politics: During the struggle for independence, political entities sometimes exploited communal
identities for electoral and political gains, thereby deepening divisions
• Communalism for Social and Political Gains: Religion, caste, and race are exploited for social and political
benefits, due to communalism.
• Social divide: Social practices and segregation based on religion promote communal identities.
• Long term impact: Affect national integration, brotherhood. For example, Mob lynching.

ISSUE OF UNTOUCHABILITY:
Untouchability is a blot for humanity, a root cause for the backwardness of the Hindu society and a serious problem
of national integration. Steps taken to eliminate untouchability were as follow:
- Legal measures:
✓ Protection of Civil Rights Acts,1955: Prescribes punishment for the enforcement of any disability arising
from preaching and practice of untouchability.

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✓ The Protection of Civil Liberties Act of 1976: It amended and expanded the Untouchability Offenses
Statute of 1955. It redefined civil rights as those rights granted to individuals by Article 17 of the
Constitution, which abolished untouchability.
✓ The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: An Act to prevent the
commission of offences of atrocities against the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
Tribes, to provide for Special Courts for the trial of such offences and for the relief and rehabilitation of
the victims of such offences and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
✓ Reservation Policy: Reservation for the people from scheduled castes and tribes by the government in
various fields such as education, employment, business political issue.
- Constitutional measures:
✓ Article 17 of the Constitution of India has abolished the practice of untouchability; its practice in any form
is forbidden and it is an offence punishable in accordance with law.
✓ Right to equality (Article 14): The Constitution says that the government shall not deny to any person in
India equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws.
✓ The directive principles of state policy (Article 46) on tribal welfare also stress that ‘state shall promote
with special care the educational and economic interests of the downtrodden communities including
Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Caste.
✓ Article 335 provides that the claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes
shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration, in the
making of appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State
✓ Article 338, there shall be a Commission for the Scheduled Castes to be known as the National Commission
for the Scheduled Castes.
✓ The Constitution of India recognizes certain castes, races and tribal groups as Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes under Article 341 and 342.

1.3 NATIONAL INTEGRATION - EVENTS

Case study of Hyderabad:

• Standstill Agreement with the Nizam of Hyderabad: The Nizam wanted Hyderabad to have an independent
status. He entered into the Standstill Agreement with India in November 1947.
• Movement against Nizam: Peasantry, especially in Telangana, rose against oppressive rule. Women also
joined in large numbers.

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- Nizam unleashed Razakars, a paramilitary force, leading to atrocities and communal tensions.
• Indian Army Intervention: 'Operation Polo' in September 1948 brought the Indian army under the control of
Nizam's forces. After intermittent fighting, Nizam surrendered, leading to Hyderabad's accession to India.

Case Study of Manipur:

• Internal Autonomy: Maharaja of Manipur, Bodhachandra Singh, signed the Instrument of Accession in Aug
1947, ensuring internal autonomy in Manipur.
• Constitutional monarchy in Manipur: Under pressure, the Maharaja held elections in June 1948 in Manipur,
and the state became a constitutional monarchy.
• Differences over Merger: Sharp differences arose over the merger of Manipur with India. State Congress
favoured it, while other parties opposed it.
• Merger Agreement without Consent: The government of India pressured Maharaja into signing the Merger
Agreement in Sep 1949, bypassing the elected Legislative Assembly of Manipur.

Case study of Junagadh:

• Decision of Muhammad Nawab Khanji III: Junagadh contained a large Hindu population, but Nawab chose to
accede to Pakistan, arguing that Junagadh adjoined Pakistan by sea.
• Tensions over communal violence: India believed that if Junagadh was permitted to accede to Pakistan,
communal tension already simmering in Gujarat would worsen, and it refused the accession.
• Decision to call for a plebiscite: The government pointed out that the state was 80% Hindu and called for a
plebiscite to decide the question of accession. Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite, subject to the
withdrawal of Indian troops, a condition India rejected.
• Invitation given to the Indian government: On November 7, 1947, Junagadh’s court, facing collapse, invited
the Government of India to take over the State’s administration.
- The Dewan of Junagadh, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, decided to invite the Government of India to intervene.
• Result of plebiscite: Junagadh became a part of the Indian state of Saurashtra until November 1, 1956, when
Saurashtra became part of Bombay state.

Case study of Kashmir:

• Stand of Maharaja Hari Singh: He had offered a proposal of standstill agreement to both India and Pakistan
but remained reluctant to join either of the two dominions.
• Pakistan’s invasion of Kashmir: Pakistan invaded Kashmir, and thousands of tribal Pathans swept into
Kashmir in October 1947.
• Maharaja’s appeal for help: The Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir appealed to India for help and signed an
'Instrument of Accession' of J&K state.
- According to the terms of the document, the Indian jurisdiction would extend to external affairs,
communications and defence. After the document was signed, Indian troops were airlifted into the state
and fought alongside the Kashmiris.
- On 5th March 1948, Maharaja Hari Singh announced the formation of an interim popular government
with Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah as the Prime Minister.
• Provisions under the Delhi Agreement: In 1951, the state constituent assembly was elected. In 1952, the
Delhi Agreement was signed between the Prime Ministers of India and Jammu & Kashmir, giving the state a
special position under the Indian Constitutional framework.
• Accession of Jammu and Kashmir: On 6th February 1954, the J&K constituent assembly ratified the accession
of the state to the Union of India. The President subsequently issued the constitutional order under Article
370.

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1.4 CHRONOLOGICAL FORMATION/INTEGRATION OF STATES IN N-E INDIA

1.5 INTEGRATION OF TRIBALS

The integration of tribals in post-independence India has been a significant challenge due to historical injustices,
cultural diversity, and socio-economic disparities. The Indian government has implemented various policies and
programs to address the specific needs of tribal communities and ensure their integration into mainstream society.

Their status during the colonial period:

• During colonialism, the tribals experienced a loss of seclusion, leading to exploitation as farm labourers and a
disconnect from the forests. Their reliance on trees for sustenance and livelihoods was disrupted.
Consequently, they faced poverty, debt, and hardships.
• Land loss, indebtedness, exploitation by intermediaries, denial of access to forests and forest products, and
oppression and extortion by policemen, forest officials, and other government officials all contributed to a
series of tribal uprisings in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, including the Santhal uprising, and the
Munda rebellion led by Birsa Munda.

Difficulties in Tribal Integration:

• Their rudimentary manner of living, Economic and social backwardness, Literacy is low, A tired production
system, Absence of a value system, Physical infrastructure is lacking in backward tribal places and the
demographic quality of tribal territories.

1.5.1 KEY APPROACHES FOR TRIBAL INTEGRATION IN POST-INDEPENDENCE INDIA

APPROACH FEATURES
Assimilation • This assimilation approach seeks to fully integrate tribal communities into mainstream society
Approach by by eradicating their distinct cultural practices and identities.
GS Ghure • Tribal communities are expected to adopt the majority's language, religion, and customs.

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(Indian • Assimilation policies often promote the abandonment of tribal languages, cultures, and
sociologist) livelihoods. This approach could weaken tribal autonomy and cultural heritage.
Isolation • The isolation, seclusion, or preservation approach emphasizes keeping tribal communities
Approach or isolated from mainstream society.
National Park • It shields tribal cultures from outside influences. Isolation policies involve creating tribal
Approach by reservations and restricting outside contact.
Elwin • This approach protects tribal cultures but limits their access to essential services, economic
opportunities, and socio-political participation.
Integration • The integration approach balances tribal culture preservation and socio-economic integration
Approach into society.
• Tribes' cultural identities are respected while they participate equally in mainstream social,
economic, and political processes.
• Education, healthcare, land and resource rights, livelihood opportunities, and decision-making
representation empower tribal communities.
• The integration approach preserves and promotes tribal cultures while giving tribes equal
rights, opportunities, and development benefits.

1.5.2 TRIBAL PANCHSHEEL (NEHRUVIAN APPROACH)

Steps taken: Tribal Panchsheel shaped constitutional arrangements for tribals. These ideals gave tribal governance a
boost for rebuilding India.
• The Indian Constitution lists Scheduled Tribes (STs).
• Article 342 of the 1950 constitution designates 212 tribes in 14 states as STs.
• Article 19(5) allows special restrictions for protecting ST interests.
• Article 46 mandates support for the educational and economic interests of impoverished communities,
including STs.
• Article 164 establishes Tribal Welfare Ministers in Bihar, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh.
• Article 244 enables the President to designate regions with large tribal populations as Scheduled Areas.
Scheduled Areas empower tribal rights and welfare.
• Tribes Advisory Council advises Governors in Scheduled Areas.

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• Scheduled Areas exempt from certain laws unless extended by Governors.
• Article 275(1) authorizes special grants for ST welfare.
• Article 338 establishes the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST).

Other measures include:

• Forest Rights Act, 2006: Recognizing Forest rights of STs.
• Educational initiatives: Include residential schools, scholarships, and financial incentives Ex: Eklavya Model
Residential school.
• Employment and livelihood programs: Like NRLM, MGNREGA, and Skill India.
• Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996: It extends the Panchayati Raj system to scheduled
areas, empowering tribal participation in local governance.
• National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST): Established through 89th AA, 2003 to investigate and
monitor matters relating to safeguards provided for STs under the Constitution or other laws or under the
Govt. orders.

NSTFDC (National Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation)

• Established in 2001, a PSU under the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
• Aims to uplift the economic status of Scheduled Tribes through concessional financial assistance.
• Prominent schemes include Term Loan, Adivasi Mahila Sashaktikaran Yojana (exclusive for ST women), Adivasi
Shiksha Rinn Yojana (Education Loan), Micro Credit Scheme for ST Self Help Groups (SHGs), Tribal Forest
Dwellers Empowerment Scheme, and Teak Growers Scheme.

1.6 ROLE OF SARDAR PATEL IN INTEGRATION OF PRINCELY STATES

• Deputy Prime Minister's Task: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, as India's first deputy prime minister and home
minister, was assigned the formidable task of integrating the princely states.
• Collaboration with V.P. Menon: Sardar Patel collaborated with V.P. Menon, the secretary of the Ministry of
States, to facilitate the integration process.
• Privy Purses Concept: Patel introduced the concept of "Privy Purses," offering royal family’s substantial
payments to merge their states with India.
• Early Successes: States like Bikaner and Baroda, along with several others in Rajasthan, were among the first
to join the Union of India.
• Challenges with Pakistan-leaning States: Some princely states leaned towards joining Pakistan or remaining
independent, complicating the integration efforts.
⎯ Example: Hyderabad, Jodhpur, Junagadh
• Jodhpur's Strategic Importance: The Rajput princely state of Jodhpur, despite its Hindu king and population,
leaned towards Pakistan, prompting intense negotiations from Patel.
• Securing Jodhpur: Patel's negotiation efforts with Jodhpur's Hanvant Singh, including offering significant
benefits and stressing strategic advantages, secured the state's accession to India.
• Effortless Integration: Patel's relentless efforts resulted in the successful integration of most princely states,
bringing valuable assets and economic benefits to India.
• Economic and Strategic Gains: The integration of princely states contributed to India's wealth and facilitated
vital trade, import, and export activities, strengthening the nation's economy.

1.7 CONTRIBUTIONS OF DR. B.R. AMBEDKAR IN THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

• Chairmanship of the Drafting Committee: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar served as the Chairman of the Drafting
Committee of the Constituent Assembly, playing a pivotal role in shaping the Indian Constitution.
• Architect of the Indian Constitution: Ambedkar is widely regarded as the architect of the Indian Constitution
due to his central role in drafting its provisions and framework.

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• Key Figure in the Constituent Assembly: Holding crucial offices and actively participating in debates,
Ambedkar emerged as a key figure in India's constitution-making process.
• Defender of the Draft Constitution: As Chairman of the Drafting Committee, Ambedkar defended the
prepared Draft Constitution in numerous debates and discussions.
• Advocate for Dalit Rights: Ambedkar advocated for Dalit rights during the drafting process, seeking to address
historical injustices and ensure their inclusion in the constitutional framework.
• Contribution through 'States and Minorities': Ambedkar authored 'States and Minorities,' a document
submitted to the Constituent Assembly's Sub-Committee on Fundamental Rights, advocating strong
constitutional protections for Scheduled Castes.
• Insightful Interventions: His interventions and speeches in the Assembly were noted for their insight,
meticulous research, and logical reasoning, earning him respect and support from fellow members.
• Leadership in Constitution-Making: Ambedkar's leadership of the constitution-making project was
instrumental in navigating complexities and ensuring comprehensive representation in the Constitution.
• Legacy of Constitutional Empowerment: His contributions left a lasting legacy of constitutional
empowerment and social justice, particularly for marginalized communities like Dalits.

1.8 ROLE OF VINOBA BHAVE IN INDEPENDENCE INDIA

• Bhoodan Movement: Launched in 1951, Bhave initiated the Bhoodan (land gift) movement, encouraging
landowners to voluntarily donate a portion of their land to the landless.
- This movement aimed at redistributing land to reduce inequalities and provide the rural poor with land
for cultivation.
• Gramdan Movement: He started the Gramdan (village gift) movement, where entire villages were encouraged
to donate land for collective use and management. This initiative aimed at promoting self-sufficiency and
cooperative living in rural areas.
• Sarvodaya Movement: Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's principles, the movement sought to create a society
based on non-violence, self-reliance, and equitable distribution of resources.
• Advocacy for Non-violence and Peace: He promoted the idea of Shanti Sena (peace army), where individuals
were trained to act as agents of peace and harmony in society.
• Educational Reforms: He emphasized the importance of Nai Talim (new education), an educational philosophy
that integrated learning with productive work and that fostered self-reliance and moral development.
• Spiritual Leadership: He was regarded as a spiritual leader and continued to influence various social and
political leaders through his teachings and writings.
- His spiritual approach to social reform inspired many to adopt simple living and selfless service.
• Promotion of Self-sufficiency: He advocated for economic self-sufficiency at the village level, encouraging
local production and consumption to reduce dependence on external resources.

CONCLUSION:
Assimilation and isolation have been criticised for ignoring tribal communities' rights, autonomy, and cultural diversity.
The integration approach respects and preserves tribal cultures while addressing socio-economic disparities and
ensuring tribal participation in shaping their future.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. The political and administrative reorganization of states and territories has been a continuous ongoing process
since the mid-nineteenth century. Discuss with examples (2022, 15 Marks).
2. Why are the tribals in India referred to as the Scheduled Tribes? Indicate the major provisions enshrined in the
Constitution of India for their upliftment (2016, 12.5 Marks).

========================================================================================

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2 ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH OFFICIAL LANGUAGES

The language issue in India has been divisive and challenging. Linguistic diversity posed challenges for national
consolidation with the debate over the union's official language and states' linguistic reorganisation.

2.1 LINGUISTIC REORGANISATION OF STATE ARGUMENT IN FAVOUR AND AGAINST:

Argument in Favour Argument Against
• Secular Reorganization: Most secular trait for • More demands for state: It was feared that it will spur the
reorganisation. demand for new stated, Weakening of integration process.
• Preserve identity: It will help to preserve • Need comprehensive criteria for reorganisation: Cannot
cultural identity by development of regional be the sole criteria for reorganisation. Administrative
language. convenience, financial feasibility shall be taken into
• Democratization of citizen: Masses can consideration
actively participate in democratic process; it • National identity: It would slow down the process of
will give them a sense of identity. Will help to emergence of a national identity.
fight identity crisis. • Challenges to cooperative federalism: Sub national
• Administrative efficiency: Multilingual states identity sometimes is against the cooperative federalism.
are relatively difficult to administer.

STATE GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES WHEN REORGANISATION IS DONE:

• Dominance of Caste/Community: This may result in the hegemony of the dominant community or caste over
power structures within the new state.
• Political Consequences of State Creation: The formation of new states could empower a small group of
legislators to disproportionately influence in government formation and stability.
• Intra-Regional Rivalries: The creation of new states can foster rivalries among different sub-regions within the
state.
• Inter-State Disputes: There is a potential increase in disputes over water, power, and boundaries between the
newly formed states and their neighbours.
• Financial Burden: Division of states requires substantial funds for establishing new capitals and maintaining
additional administrative infrastructure, as seen in the case of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
• Empowerment of Local Institutions: Instead of empowering existing institutions like Gram Panchayats and
District Collectors, creating smaller states often results in the diffusion of development efforts across
previously neglected areas.

2.2 LANGUAGE ISSUE IN INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

• After 1942, Mahatma Gandhi emphasised Hindustani, a fusion of Hindi and Urdu, as the unifying language.
• The Constituent Assembly had disagreements on declaring Hindi as the national language. But finally, it was
decided that the Constitution would speak of an ‘official language’.
• The Constitution adopted the Munshi-Ayyangar Formula, making Hindi in Devanagari script the official
language with a 15-year transition period.
• English would continue to be used for all official purposes for the next 15 years, to enable a smooth transition
for non-Hindi speaking states.
• The Official Languages Act of 1963 extended the use of English beyond the transition period.
• Protests erupted in non-Hindi states, particularly Tamil Nadu, against the imposition of Hindi.
• Three Language Formula: Since the 1960s, the Centre’s education policy documents speak of teaching three
languages:

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- Hindi, English and one regional language in Hindi-speaking States,
- Hindi, English and the official regional language in other states.

WHY HAS LANGUAGE BECOME A SENSITIVE ISSUE?

• Self-identification: Strong identification with one’s regional language and an underlying fear of
homogenization are at the heart of the national language question in India.
• Access to Economic Opportunities: The decision to learn another language is based on one's access to
economic opportunities and the potential benefits.
• Language defines the primary group: People identify with one another based on language, thus giving them
a primary group.
• Threats to diversity: Language is integral to culture, and therefore, privileging Hindi over all other languages
spoken in India diminishes its diversity.
• Promises made by Constituent Assembly: Nehru promised that Hindi would only serve as a linking language
and would not be imposed on non-Hindi-speaking states.

2.3 MAJOR EVENTS OF LANGUAGE ISSUE

• Early Beginnings of Reorganization: The idea of reorganizing states based on linguistic regions began forming
in the early 1900s, setting a transformative path for post-independence India.
• Debate Over National Language: After independence, the debate over choosing a national language to
replace English emerged, with Gandhi advocating for Hindustani as a means of national integration.
• Resistance to Hindi: The proposal to make Hindi the national language faced strong opposition from non-
Hindi-speaking regions, especially in southern and eastern India.
• Language Committee's Compromise: The Constituent Assembly's Language Committee proposed that Hindi
in Devanagari script be the official language, with English continuing for official purposes for the first fifteen
years.
• Official Languages Act of 1963: This Act stipulated that Hindi would become the official language in 1965,
while English would serve as an associate additional official language to accommodate non-Hindi speakers.
• Resentment and Demonstrations: Despite legislative provisions, resentment against Hindi persisted in south
India, leading to violent demonstrations in late 1964 and early 1965.
• Official Languages (Amendment) Act of 1967: This Act established a bilingual solution for official
communication between the Centre and states, and recognized regional languages in provincial
administration and public service exams.
• Role of Nehru: He recognized Hindustani's potential for national integration and supported its adoption as a
unifying language during the national language debate.
• Regional Language Options: Provinces were allowed to choose regional languages for official work, with these
languages being listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.

LINGUISTIC REORGANIZATION OF STATES

• Congress Party’s Commitment: The Indian National Congress endorsed linguistic states in 1917, formalizing
this commitment at the Nagpur Session in 1920.
• Gandhi’s Support: Mahatma Gandhi advocated for linguistic states, believing they would enhance
understanding and unity among people using their native languages.
• Nehru’s Apprehension: Former PM Jawaharlal Nehru was initially wary of linguistic states after the 1947
partition but faced growing demands for them post-independence.
• Creation of Maharashtra: The demand for a separate Marathi-speaking state, Maharashtra, gained traction,
with other linguistic groups also seeking their own states.

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• Purpose of Reorganization: Linguistic reorganization aimed to address language-based regional identities and
improve governance by creating linguistically and culturally homogeneous states.
• First State: Andhra Pradesh became the first state formed based on linguistic reorganization.

2.4 BENEFITS OF HAVING A NATIONAL LANGUAGE

• Broad user base: Hindi has a large native speaker and proficient speaker population in India.
• Unity and cooperation: Hindi can facilitate better coordination among states, reduce regional disparities,
and respect local languages.
• International prestige: Using a national language in international forums enhances a nation's prestige and
promotes the global reputation of the language.

WHY HINDI CANNOT BE THE NATIONAL LANGUAGE?

• Multiple dialects: Hindi has largely been influenced by Persian — and then English, among other languages.
Also, when the languages were enumerated, Hindi subsumed Bhojpuri, which is spoken by a little over five
crore people.

• Inefficacy of Sanskrit: Some demanded that Sanskrit be made the official language, while others argued in
favour of ‘Hindustani’.
• Issue over Script: There were also differences of opinion over the script. When opinion veered towards
accepting Hindi, proponents of the language wanted the ‘Devanagari’ script to be adopted for both words and
numerals.
ISSUES WITH HINDI AS A NATIONAL LANGUAGE

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2.5 THE ISSUE WITH LINGUISTIC MINORITY
A linguistic minority is a group of people whose mother tongue is different from that of the majority in the state or
part of a state.

2.6 MEASURES TAKEN TO ERADICATE THE PROBLEM OF LINGUISTIC MINORITIES

Provision of Fundamental Rights for Minorities:
• Article 30 of the Indian Constitution grants linguistic and religious minorities the right to establish and manage
educational institutions.
• Article 347 empowers the President to officially recognize a language in a state upon demand by a minority.
Amendments act associated with reorganisation of state:
• Constitution (7th Amendment) Act, 1956: Parliament passed the Constitution (7th Amendment) Act, 1956 to
give effect to the recommendations of the Commission. It introduced significant changes to the Constitution,
including the replacement of the terms "Part A," "Part B," "Part C," and "Part D" states with "States" and
"Union Territories.".
• Constitution (69th Amendment) Act, 1991: It provided for the creation of the National Capital Territory (NCT)
of Delhi, with a legislative assembly and a special status.
• Constitution (100th Amendment) Act, 2015: This amendment ratified the Land Boundary Agreement (LBA)
between India and Bangladesh, leading to the exchange of enclaves and resolution of the boundary issue.

CURRENT CONNECT
• National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 emphasises the importance of education in the mother tongue and all
Indian languages.
• India is now making efforts towards imparting education in the mother tongue, specially at the primary level.
- Issue: The actual number of languages that can be considered to be “active” in the country.
- Proposal: Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts (IGNCA) has proposed linguistic survey across the country
by the, which aims to enumerate how many languages are spoken and in which States and regions.
• Official languages of India: 22 languages officially, which are part of Schedule 8 of the Indian Constitution.
According to Census data, 97 % of the Indian population speaks one of these languages.

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- There are an additional 99 non-scheduled languages included in the Census, and according to the 2011
Census, around 37.8 million people identify one of these non-Scheduled languages as their mother tongue.

WAY FORWARD:
To preserve linguistic diversity, it is crucial to promote quality education in mother tongues and minority languages,
support cultural activities and media in these languages, and ensure the representation and participation of linguistic
minorities. Additionally, implementing initiatives for language preservation and revitalisation can safeguard
endangered languages for future generations.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. Has the formation of linguistic states strengthened the cause of Indian Unity? (2016, 12.5 Marks)

========================================================================================

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 ESSAY
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3 REGIONALISM
Regionalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the distinct identity, autonomy, and self-determination of a
particular region or group of regions within a larger political entity.

3.1 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO REGIONALISM

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3.2 TYPES OF REGIONALISM

Inter-State • This type involves cooperation and collaboration between different states of a country to
Regionalism address common issues. For example, the Southern States Development Forum in India
addresses issues of economic development and governance among Southern states.
Supra-State • This type involves cooperation and integration between different regions of a country to
Regionalism achieve common goals. For example, the North Eastern Council in India promotes economic
and social development in the Northeastern region.
Intra-State • This type involves the promotion of the interests of a particular region or community
Regionalism within a state. For example, the demand for Telangana state was an instance of intra-state
regionalism, where people of the Telangana region demanded a separate state for
themselves.
Linguistic • This type is characterized by the promotion of a particular language or dialect within a
Regionalism region. For example, the demand for recognition of the Telugu language in Andhra Pradesh
is an instance of linguistic regionalism.
Ethnic and • This type involves the promotion of the cultural and ethnic identity of a particular region.
Cultural For example, the Gorkhaland movement in West Bengal is an instance of ethnic and cultural
Regionalism regionalism, as it seeks to preserve the cultural identity of the Gorkha community.
Political • This type involves the promotion of political autonomy or independence for a particular
Regionalism region. For example, the Bodoland movement in Assam is an instance of political
regionalism, as it seeks to establish a separate Bodoland state

3.3 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF REGIONALISM

POSITIVE IMPACTS NEGATIVE IMPACTS

• Nation Building: Regionalism aids in nation-building by • Threat to National Unity: Regionalism poses
accommodating regional demands within the political a significant threat to the nation's unity,
system, fostering a sense of empowerment and satisfaction development, and progress by fostering
among people. divisive sentiments.
• Expression of Identity: Regionalism often allows linguistic, • Internal Security Challenges: Insurgent
tribal, religious, and other communities to express their groups promoting regionalism create
identities and aspirations. internal security challenges against the
• Democratic Engagement: Regional identities often coexist mainstream political and administrative
with national identity, enhancing democratic engagement setup.
and local governance. • Influence on National Politics: It heavily
• Protection of Tribal Identities: For instance, the Tripura influences national politics, leading to
Tribal Autonomous District Council has protected tribal coalition governments and national policies
identity and reduced political extremism. dominated by regional demands.

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• Balanced Development: Political structures accommodating • Vote Bank Politics: Some regional leaders
regionalism allow for balanced regional development and engage in vote bank politics based on
respect for socio-cultural diversity. language and culture, undermining healthy
• Rise of Regional Parties: Positive regionalism encourages the democratic procedures.
emergence of regional parties, enhancing democratic • Inefficient Governance: The demand for
representation. separate states often results in inefficient
• Local Leadership Trust: People are more likely to trust governance by alliances, making the
leaders from their own region, preventing political administrative machinery ineffective.
monopolization and fostering empathy.

3.4 PRE-INDEPENDENCE REGIONAL MOVEMENTS

Dravidian Movement • The early 20th century calls for a separate Dravidian state, highlighting South
Indian identity.
Akali Movement • The 1920s Sikh movement in Punjab aimed at religious and political autonomy.
Assam Movement • The early 20th-century movement against British colonial policies and Bengali
dominance.
Sindhi Regionalism • Pre-partition calls for Sindhi cultural and political recognition.
Hyderabad Movement • The demand for an independent Hyderabad state before and after Indian
independence.
Princely States • Regionalism in princely states like Travancore sought autonomy during
integration into India.
Tribal Movements • Early 20th-century tribal movements in regions like Jharkhand and
Chhattisgarh seeking recognition and rights.

3.5 POST-INDEPENDENCE REGIONAL MOVEMENTS

Linguistic Reorganization • The States Reorganisation Act, of 1956, created states based on linguistic lines,
addressing many regional demands.
Statehood Demands • Movements like those for Chhattisgarh, and Uttarakhand led to the creation
of new states.
North-East Insurgency • Regionalism in the Northeast, driven by ethnic identity and perceived neglect,
led to insurgency and demands for autonomy.
Khalistan Movement • The 1980s Sikh separatist movement in Punjab sought an independent state.
Dravidian Movement • The post-independence evolution of the Dravidian movement into political
parties like DMK and AIADMK.
Bodoland Movement • The demand for a separate Bodoland in Assam, driven by ethnic identity and
economic grievances.
Telangana Movement • The successful struggle for the creation of Telangana state in 2014.
Gorkhaland Movement • The ongoing demand for a separate state for the Gorkhas in West Bengal.
Other Regional Movements • Other significant movements like those in Vidarbha, Saurashtra, and
Bundelkhand.

3.6 IMPORTANCE AND RELEVANCE OF REGIONALISM

• Cultural Preservation: Regionalism helps preserve local languages, traditions, and customs, contributing to
India's cultural diversity.

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• Political Representation: Ensures that diverse regional interests are represented in the political system,
enhancing democratic governance.
• Economic Development: Addresses regional economic disparities by advocating for fair resource allocation
and development projects.
• Decentralization: Promotes local governance and decision-making, leading to more effective and responsive
administration.
• Federalism Strengthening: Enhances the federal structure by recognizing and accommodating regional
aspirations within the national framework.
• National Integration: Properly managed regionalism can strengthen national unity by addressing regional
grievances.
• Policy Making: Regionalism influences policy formulation, ensuring that local needs and conditions are
considered in national policies.
• Conflict Resolution: Provides a platform for addressing and resolving regional conflicts through dialogue and
negotiation.
• Social Justice: Regional movements often highlight issues of social justice, advocating for the rights of
marginalized groups.

3.7 CHALLENGES POSED BY REGIONAL MOVEMENTS

• Secessionist Movements: Regionalism sometimes leads to secessionist movements, threatening national
unity, as seen in Punjab (1980s) and Jammu & Kashmir.
• Inter-State Conflicts: Regionalism can exacerbate inter-state conflicts over resources, boundaries, and cultural
issues, such as the Cauvery water dispute.
• Ethnic Tensions: Ethnic and linguistic regionalism can lead to tensions and violence, as seen in the North-East
and Maharashtra.
• Centrifugal Forces: Regionalism can act as a centrifugal force, pulling away from the center and weakening
national cohesion.
• Political Fragmentation: The rise of regional parties can lead to political fragmentation and instability at the
national level.
• Regional Chauvinism: Excessive regionalism can foster regional chauvinism and parochialism, undermining
the idea of a united India.
• Economic Disparities: Regionalism highlights economic disparities between regions, leading to demands for
more equitable development.
• Resource Allocation Conflicts: Conflicts over the allocation of central resources and funds to different states.
• Uneven Development: Regionalism can lead to uneven development, with some regions advancing while
others lag behind.
• Migration Issues: Regionalism can lead to issues related to migration and the treatment of migrants, as seen
in Maharashtra and Assam.
• Regional Biases: Regionalism can foster biases in policy-making and resource distribution, favoring certain
regions over others.
• Coalition Politics: The rise of regional parties and coalition politics can lead to political instability and frequent
government changes.
• Policy Gridlock: Regionalism can lead to policy gridlock, with regional parties pushing for their specific
agendas.

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• Governance Challenges: The challenge of governing a diverse nation with strong regional aspirations and
demands.
• Legislative Impasse: The role of regional parties in causing legislative impasses and delays in policy
implementation.

3.8 SON OF SOIL DOCTRINE

The "Sons of the Soil" doctrine is a regionalist ideology that emphasizes the importance of giving preference to native
residents of a state over outsiders in terms of employment, education, and other opportunities.
• This doctrine is often associated with the idea that a state belongs to the main linguistic group that inhabits it
and that outsiders are not considered part of that community.

The "Sons of the Soil" doctrine has been implemented in various forms across different states in India.
• For example, Karnataka's New Employment Policy aims to create 7,50,000 jobs for locals in the next three
years, while Jharkhand, Haryana, and Andhra Pradesh have reserved 75% of jobs in the private sector for local
residents. Punjab and Madhya Pradesh have also proposed similar laws, although these have been challenged
in court.
CURRENT CONNECT
Recently, The Punjab and Haryana High Court quashed the Haryana government’s law guaranteeing 75% reservation
to locals in private sector jobs in Haryana.
• In response, the Haryana government reached the Supreme Court (SC) which has requested a response from
the Centre.

3.8 RESOLVING REGIONALISM

Constitutional Provisions Policy Measures Legislative Actions Institutional Mechanisms

Federal Structure: India's Economic Development Statehood Bills: Legislative NITI Aayog: The role of the
federal structure, with a Programs: Programs and actions granting statehood now NITI Aayog in
division of powers schemes aimed at to regions based on addressing regional
between the center and addressing regional regional demands, such as development needs and
states, addresses regional economic disparities and the creation of Telangana. planning.
aspirations. promoting balanced
development.
Regional Councils: The Special Economic Zones: Autonomy Legislation: Finance Commission: The
establishment of regional The establishment of Legislation granting role of the Finance
councils and development Special Economic Zones greater autonomy to Commission in
boards to address regional (SEZs) to promote regional regions with specific recommending resource
issues and development industrialization and needs, such as the North- distribution between the
economic growth. Eastern states. center and states.
Fiscal Federalism: Backward Area Development Councils: Inter-State Councils: The
Constitutional Development: Policies and The establishment of establishment of inter-
mechanisms for fiscal programs targeted at the regional development state councils to address
federalism and resource development of backward councils and boards to regional issues and
distribution between the and underdeveloped address specific regional promote inter-state
center and states. E.g. GST regions. issues. cooperation.
Decentralization: Social Welfare Schemes: Policy Reforms: Legislative Zonal Councils: The role of
Constitutional provisions Welfare schemes aimed at reforms aimed at zonal councils in

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for decentralization and addressing regional social addressing regional addressing regional issues
local governance through issues and improving living grievances and promoting and promoting regional
Panchayati Raj institutions. standards. balanced development. cooperation and
development.

3.9 INITIATIVES OF GOVERNMENT TO REDUCE REGIONALISM

• Autonomy within 5th and 6th Schedules: The Government has provided autonomy to certain regions within
the 5th and 6th Schedules of the Constitution, which have their own administrative and legislative powers.
• Linguistic Reorganization of States: The Government has reorganized states based on linguistic lines, which
has helped to reduce regional tensions and promote national integration.
• Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (DoNER): It was set up in 2001 and converted into a full-
fledged Ministry in 2004.
- It is the only Ministry with a territorial jurisdiction and functions to coordinate developmental efforts in
the Northeast region
• Special Category Status (SCS): It is a classification granted to some states by the Centre to assist development,
based on geographical and socio-economic disadvantages.
• Three Language Formula: The Government has implemented the Three Language Formula, which aims to
promote the use of Hindi, English, and the regional language in education and administration.
• Special Grants to Backward States: The Government has provided special grants to backward states to
promote their development and reduce regional disparities.
• Federal Institutions: The Government has established federal institutions like the Inter-State Council, NITI
Aayog, and GST Council to promote cooperation and coordination between states and the Centre.
• Creation of New States: The Government has created new states like Telangana and Uttarakhand to address
regional aspirations and promote national integration.
• Initiatives like ‘Ek Bharat Shreshta Bharat’: The Government has launched initiatives like ‘Ek Bharat Shreshta
Bharat’ to promote the spirit of national integration through a deep and structured engagement between all
Indian States and Union Territories.
• Incentives for Promoting Investment in Backward Regions: The Government has provided incentives like
Income Tax Concession and tax Holiday to promote investment in backward regions and reduce regional
disparities.

3.10 WAY AHEAD

• Strengthening Federalism: Promote cooperative federalism by enhancing the roles and responsibilities of
state governments in national governance.
- The recent 15th Finance Commission's recommendation for greater fiscal space to states should be
leveraged to empower them financially.
• Inclusive Economic Policies: Implement inclusive economic policies that address regional disparities by
investing in underdeveloped regions.
- Initiatives like the "Aspirational Districts Programme" launched by NITI Aayog target the most backward
districts in terms of health, education, and infrastructure.
• Cultural Preservation and Promotion: Encourage the preservation and promotion of regional cultures,
languages, and traditions through educational programs and media representation.
- The National Education Policy 2020 emphasizes the importance of mother tongue in early education,
which can help in preserving regional languages and cultures.

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• Decentralization and Local Governance: Strengthen local governance by empowering Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs) and urban local bodies.
- The "Smart Cities Mission" and "AMRUT" (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation)
projects should integrate local governance more effectively.
• Inter-State Cooperation: Facilitate inter-state cooperation on shared issues such as water resources,
infrastructure projects, and environmental conservation.
- The recent resolution of the Mahanadi River water dispute between Odisha and Chhattisgarh through
negotiation is a positive example.
• Addressing Secessionist Tendencies: Engage with regions experiencing secessionist tendencies through
dialogue and development-oriented policies.
- The successful implementation of the "Bodoland Territorial Region Accord" in Assam, which addresses
long-standing demands of the Bodo community, is a model.
• Balanced Media Representation: Ensure balanced media representation of all regions to avoid stereotypes
and biases.
- Initiatives like "Doordarshan's regional channels" can be strengthened to ensure more regional content is
highlighted.
• Policy Innovation and Experimentation: Encourage states to be laboratories of policy innovation.
- States like Tamil Nadu with its MGNREGA-linked "Skill Development Program" and Rajasthan's
"Bhamashah Scheme" can serve as models.
• Infrastructure Development: Prioritize infrastructure development in lagging regions to boost connectivity
and economic opportunities.
- The recent announcement of the "NIP" is a step towards balanced infrastructure development.
• Educational Reforms: Implement educational reforms that include regional history and culture in the
curriculum.
- Initiatives like "Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat" promote cultural exchanges among states to foster unity and
understanding.

CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, embracing the diversity inherent in regionalism while fostering national unity is vital for India's progress.
The path forward necessitates careful policy formulation, effective implementation, and continuous dialogue among
all stakeholders. By addressing the challenges and capitalizing on the opportunities that regionalism presents, India
can pave the way for a harmonious and prosperous future for all its regions.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. Do you agree that regionalism in India appears to be a consequence of rising cultural assertiveness? Argue (2020,
10 Marks)
2. Discuss whether the formation of new states in recent times is beneficial or not for the economy of India. (2018,
15 Marks)
3. What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that unequal distribution of benefits of development on a regional basis
eventually promotes regionalism? Substantiate your answer. (2016, 12.5 Marks)
4. Has the formation of linguistic states strengthened the cause of Indian Unity? (2016, 12.5 Marks)
5. The growing feeling of regionalism is an essential factor in the generation of demand for a separate state.
Discuss. (2013, 10 Marks)

========================================================================================

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4 NAXALISM
Naxalism, also known as the Maoist insurgency, is a radical left-wing movement in India that seeks to overthrow the
existing state structure through armed struggle and establish a communist society.

4.1 ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION

• Naxalism, is one of the longest and deadliest insurgencies in India's history.
• It is a form of Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) that traces its origins back to the Telangana peasant rebellion (1946-
51) but truly gained prominence in 1967 with the Naxalbari uprising in West Bengal.
Origins of the Maoist Movement
• Telangana Peasant Rebellion (1946-51): The seeds of the Maoist movement were sown during the Telangana
rebellion, where peasants fought against feudal oppression and exploitation.
• Naxalbari Uprising (1967): The movement reached its peak with the Naxalbari uprising led by Charu
Majumdar, Kanu Sanyal, and Jangal Santhal. This armed rebellion sought to overthrow the existing social order
and establish a communist state.
• Initial Support and Suppression: The Naxalite rebels initially received support from local villagers and even
from the People's Republic of China, which hailed the movement as the "Spring Thunder." Despite the initial
rebellion being suppressed, the movement found new leaders and continued to grow.
Evolution and Ideological Development
• Distinct Ideology: While the Naxalite movement was initially inspired by Mao Zedong's ideology, it gradually
developed its own distinct form, adapting to the Indian socio-political context.
• Leadership and Spread: After the suppression of the initial rebellion, the movement found new leaders like
Charu Majumdar and Kanu Sanyal, who helped spread the ideology across various parts of India.

4.2 EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF THE MAOIST MOVEMENT IN INDIA

1980s Expansion
• People’s War Group (PWG): In the 1980s, the movement spread particularly in Andhra Pradesh with the
formation of the People's War Group (PWG) under Kondapalli Seetha Ramaiah. The PWG advocated for
peasants' rights through violent means.
• Spread to Neighbouring States: Despite the suppression of the PWG, the movement expanded to
neighbouring states like Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Maharashtra. This period saw
internal conflicts among various Maoist factions.

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Formation of CPI (Maoist)
• Unification of Factions (2004): In 2004, various Maoist factions merged to form the Communist Party of India
(Maoist). This unification enabled the insurgents to consolidate their forces, expand their territorial presence,
and enhance their firepower.
• Geographic Spread and Control: By 2006, the Maoist insurgents had gained unprecedented geographic
spread, exerting control over more than 200 districts across India. Their influence surpassed that of other
insurgent groups in the country.

4.3 CAUSES BEHIND NAXALITE MOVEMENT

• Tribal Discontent: Forest Conservation Act, 1980 restricted the use of forest resources by tribal communities.
Displacement due to large-scale development projects, such as dams and mining, has also fuelled tribal
discontent.
• Exploitation of Vulnerable Individuals: Maoists exploit individuals lacking livelihood options and frustrated
with their socio-economic conditions. By providing arms, ammunition, and financial support, Maoists recruit
these individuals, promising them a sense of purpose and security.
• Neglect of Development: The government often focuses on countering violent attacks rather than addressing
socio-economic issues in Naxal-affected areas.
- Poor infrastructure, education, healthcare, and employment opportunities perpetuate poverty and
inequality. These conditions make these regions fertile ground for Naxalite influence.
• Inadequate Intelligence and Infrastructure: Limited technical intelligence capabilities hinder effective
counter-insurgency measures.
- Remote and underdeveloped areas with poor infrastructure and communication networks make
gathering accurate and timely intelligence challenging. This gives Maoists a tactical advantage.
• Inconsistent Governance: After security forces regain control of Naxal-affected areas, sustained
administrative and developmental support often fails. This lack of follow-up leads to a governance vacuum,
allowing Maoists to re-establish their influence.
• State vs. Central Government Responsibility: There is often confusion and a lack of coordination between
state and central governments regarding the approach to tackling Naxalism.
- State governments sometimes perceive it as a central government issue. This leads to insufficient
proactive initiatives and inconsistent policies at the state level.
• Historical Injustices and Inequities: Historical exploitation and oppression of lower castes and tribals by feudal
landlords have left deep scars. These communities seek justice and redress for their grievances. They often
find the Naxalite ideology appealing.
• Distrust in Government Institutions: Widespread corruption and misgovernance in local administration
exacerbate grievances among the affected population.
- The failure to deliver basic services and justice erodes trust in government institutions. This makes
Naxalism a seemingly viable alternative for the oppressed.

4.4 IMPACT OF NAXALISM

• Social Impacts
- Displacement: Thousands of people are displaced from their homes, especially in tribal and rural areas.
- Human Rights Violations: Both Maoists and security forces are accused of extrajudicial killings and
harassment.
- Educational Disruption: Schools are often closed or repurposed, depriving children of education.
• Economic Impacts
- Hindered Development: Infrastructure projects are frequently sabotaged, slowing regional progress.
- Loss of Investment: Persistent violence deters both domestic and foreign investments.
- Resource Exploitation: Maoists control and exploit natural resources, engaging in illegal mining and
timber extraction.

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• Political Impacts
- Governance Challenges: The state struggles to establish effective governance in affected areas.
- Erosion of Trust: Continuous conflict undermines trust in government institutions.
• Security Impacts
- Increased Violence: Regular clashes between Maoists and security forces lead to loss of lives.
- Strain on Security Forces: The ongoing conflict puts immense pressure on national and state security
agencies.
• Psychological Impacts
- Fear and Trauma: Continuous violence leads to widespread fear and psychological trauma among the
affected populations.
- Loss of Normalcy: Daily life is severely disrupted, affecting mental health and community stability.

4.5 GOVERNMENT’S APPROACH AGAINST NAXALISM

• Security Operations
- Operation Green Hunt: Launched in 2010 with massive deployment of security forces in Naxal-affected
areas. The number of affected districts reduced from 223 in 2010 to 90 in nine years.
- Operation SAMADHAN: An initiative by the Ministry of Home Affairs focusing on smart leadership,
aggressive strategy, motivation and training, actionable intelligence, technology use, and finance control.
- Operation Prahar: Launched in 2017 as part of the government's strategy to tackle the armed challenge
posed by Naxal insurgents.
- Joint Task Forces: Set up for operations along inter-State boundaries to improve inter-state coordination
and intelligence sharing.
• Development Initiatives
- Aspirational Districts Programme: A holistic approach addressing security, development, local
community rights, governance, and public perception management.
- Filling Infrastructure Gaps: Under the Scheme for Special Infrastructure in Left Wing Extremism affected
States, the government is working to improve critical infrastructure.
- Community Policing and Civic Action Programs: Assistance provided to states to engage in community
policing and civic action programs.
• Technological Interventions
- UAV Deployment: At least one UAV or Mini UAV is deployed for each Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF)
battalion in Maoist hotspots.
- Improved Intelligence: Strengthening intelligence networks for better information gathering and timely
action.
• Policy Reforms
- Forest Rights Act, 2006: Recognizes the rights of tribal communities over forest land and resources.
- Land Acquisition Policy Reforms: Ensuring fair compensation and rehabilitation for those displaced by
development projects.
• Community Engagement
- Surrender and Rehabilitation Policy: Encourages Naxalites to surrender with incentives like financial aid,
vocational training, and housing.
- Public Outreach Programs: Building trust between local communities and the government through
dialogue and development projects.
• Training and Support
- State Police Training: Assistance in training state police forces through the Ministry of Defence.
- Support for Law and Order: Since ‘Police’ and ‘Public Order’ are state subjects, the central government
supports state efforts to maintain law and order.

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4.6 WAY AHEAD

Holistic • Continue the integrated approach focusing on security, development, governance, and public
Strategy perception management.
Coordination • Enhance coordination between central and state agencies, ensuring a unified and coherent
strategy.
Sustainable • Focus on sustainable development initiatives to address socio-economic grievances and
Development reduce the appeal of Naxalism.
Infrastructure • Continue to fill critical infrastructure gaps in Naxal-affected areas to improve connectivity and
Development access to basic services.
Smart Policing • Emphasize intelligence-based operations and targeted strikes to dismantle Naxal networks.
Technology • Further integrate technology, such as drones and surveillance systems, to enhance security
Integration operations.
Community • Involve local communities in decision-making processes and development programs to build
Participation trust and reduce support for Naxalites.
Awareness • Conduct awareness campaigns to educate people about the negative impacts of Naxalism and
Campaigns the benefits of peace and development.
Legal Reforms • Strengthen laws to effectively deal with Naxalism while ensuring protection of human rights
Policy • Implement policies that address root causes of Naxalism, such as land rights, tribal welfare,
Reforms and equitable development.
Information • Enhance cooperation with neighboring countries to prevent cross-border movement of
Sharing Naxalites and illicit arms.
Training and • Enhance the capabilities of security forces and local administration through specialized training
Skill programs.
Development
Institutional • Strengthen institutions responsible for governance, law enforcement, and development in
Strengthening Naxal-affected regions.
Political • Explore avenues for political dialogue with Naxalite groups willing to engage in peaceful
Dialogue negotiations.
Sustainable • Develop a long-term vision for sustainable peacebuilding, focusing on reconciliation,
Peace Building rehabilitation, and reintegration of former Naxalites into mainstream society.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, countering Naxalism demands a comprehensive approach that addresses socio-economic disparities,
strengthens security measures, and promotes inclusive development. By fostering community engagement, enhancing
coordination between central and state agencies, and implementing effective policies, India can mitigate the root
causes of Naxalism and pave the way for lasting peace and prosperity in the affected regions.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. Naxalism is a social, economic and development issues manifesting as a violent internal security threat. In this
context, discuss the emerging issues and suggest a multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism.
(2022, 15 Marks)
2. What are the determinants of left-wing extremism in Eastern part of India? What strategy should Government
of India, civil administration and security forces adopt to counter the threat in the affected areas? (2020, 10
Marks)
3. Left Wing Extremism (LWE) is showing a downward trend, but still affects many parts of the country. Briefly
explain the Government of India’s approach to counter the challenges posed by LWE. (2018, 10 Marks)
4. The persisting drives of the Government for development of large industries in backward areas have resulted
in isolating the tribal population and the farmers who face multiple displacements. With Malkangiri and

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Naxalbari foci, discuss the corrective strategies needed to win the Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) doctrine affected
citizens back into the mainstream of social and economic growth. (2015, 12.5 Marks)
5. Article 244 of Indian Constitution relates to Administration of Scheduled areas and tribal areas. Analyze the
impact of non-implementation of the provisions of fifth schedule on the growth of Left-Wing Extremism. (2013,
10 Marks)

========================================================================================

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5 INDIAN ECONOMY SINCE INDEPENDENCE

India's economy since independence in 1947 has undergone significant transformation, evolving from a predominantly
agrarian economy to one of the world's largest and fastest-growing economies.

5.1 NEHRUVIAN ERA (1950S-1960s)

The Nehruvian era, spanning the 1950s and 1960s, was a critical period in India's economic history. Jawaharlal Nehru,
the first Prime Minister of India, laid the foundation for economic policies that aimed at industrialization, agrarian
reform, and social welfare.

FEATURES
• Five-Year Plans: PM Nehru introduced a series of Five-Year Plans to guide India's economic development.
These plans focused on industrial growth, agricultural development, infrastructure building, and social
welfare.
• Mixed Economy Model: Nehru adopted a mixed economy model, combining elements of socialism and
capitalism. The state played a dominant role in economic planning and control, with the public sector
coexisting alongside the private sector.
• Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI): India followed a policy of ISI to reduce dependence on imports and
promote self-reliance. This involved imposing tariffs and trade barriers to protect domestic industries.
• Public Sector Enterprises (PSEs): Nehru established several PSEs in key sectors like steel, coal, and power.
These enterprises played a crucial role in industrialization and infrastructure development.
• Agricultural Reforms: Nehru implemented agrarian reforms to address issues like land redistribution, tenancy
rights, and agricultural modernization. The aim was to improve agricultural productivity and reduce rural
poverty.
• Infrastructure Development: The Nehruvian era saw significant investments in infrastructure, including the
construction of dams, irrigation projects, and the expansion of transportation networks.
• Challenges: Despite these efforts, the Nehruvian era faced challenges such as low per capita income,
widespread poverty, low literacy rates, and inadequate infrastructure. The focus on heavy industries led to
neglect of agriculture, resulting in uneven growth.
• Macroeconomic Imbalances: The era also witnessed macroeconomic imbalances, including inflation and
balance of payments issues. The emphasis on self-reliance sometimes led to inefficiencies and quality concerns
in the industrial sector.

ISSUES WITH THE ECONOMY DURING NEHRUVIAN PHASE

• Sluggish Agricultural Growth: While there was significant focus on industrialization, agriculture received less
attention, leading to sluggish growth in the sector. This imbalance resulted in a slower overall economic growth
rate.
• Dependence on Foreign Aid: India relied heavily on foreign aid for financing development projects, which
created dependencies and limited the country's self-reliance. This dependence also posed challenges in terms
of repayment and managing external debts.
• Inefficiencies in Public Sector: The dominant role of the public sector in the economy led to inefficiencies and
lack of competitiveness. Public sector enterprises often faced issues of overstaffing, low productivity, and
quality concerns.
• Price Controls and Subsidies: The government implemented price controls and subsidies on essential
commodities to address social welfare concerns. However, these measures often led to distortions in the
market, black markets, and inflationary pressures.
• Limited Industrial Growth: The focus on import substitution industrialization (ISI) and the dominance of public
sector enterprises hindered industrial growth. Lack of competition and inefficiencies in the industrial sector
were key challenges.

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• Macroeconomic Imbalances: There were instances of macroeconomic imbalances, such as inflation and
balance of payments issues. The economy struggled to maintain a balance between growth, inflation, and
external trade.
• Infrastructure Bottlenecks: Despite efforts in infrastructure development, there were bottlenecks in areas
such as transportation, power, and irrigation, which limited overall economic growth and development.
• Over-dependence on Agriculture: The economy was heavily dependent on agriculture, which made it
vulnerable to fluctuations in agricultural output due to factors like monsoons, leading to economic instability.
Overall, the Nehruvian era laid the foundation for India's industrial and economic development. While it faced
challenges, the era's policies played a crucial role in shaping India's economy and setting the stage for future growth
and development.

5.2 INDIAN ECONOMY BETWEEN 1965 TO 1980

• Rapid Industrialization and Agricultural Impact:
- Intensive industrial growth led to a significant reduction in agricultural spending, impacting rural
development.
- Consecutive monsoon failures in 1965 and 1966 exacerbated the stagnant agricultural sector, resulting in
a decline in output.
- The failure of the monsoons, coupled with reduced agricultural spending, contributed to inflationary
pressures.
• Impact of Wars and Defence Spending:
- The conflicts with China in 1962 and Pakistan in 1965 necessitated increased defence spending.
- The heightened defence expenditure led to a fiscal deficit of 7.3% of GDP for the government in 1966-67,
straining the economy.
• Balance of Payments Crisis:
- Insufficient foreign exchange reserves, averaging around $340 million from 1964-65 to 1966-67, were
inadequate to cover even two months of imports.
- The balance of payments situation worsened, highlighting the need for external assistance and economic
reforms.
• Dependency on Foreign Aid:
- Foreign aid became increasingly relied upon during the first three Plans, driven by food shortages and a
negative balance of payments.
- The growing dependence on foreign aid underscored the need for self-sufficiency and economic reforms.
• Significant Reforms:
- A series of radical economic policies were initiated after 1967, aiming to reshape the country's
development efforts.
- The nationalisation of major private commercial banks in July 1969 aimed to increase credit flow to
agriculture, counterbalancing the dominance of big businesses.
- Subsequent nationalisations in 1972 and 1973 targeted the insurance and coal industries, respectively, to
enhance public sector participation in key sectors.
• Monopoly and Restrictive Trade Practices Act (MRTP):
- The MRTP Act of 1969 was enacted to promote a competitive business environment by restricting the
activities of large business houses.
- It aimed to prevent the formation of monopolies, ensuring fair competition and market efficiency.

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The reforms of this period had a lasting impact on the economy, setting the stage for future developments. These
reforms aimed to address key challenges such as inflation, fiscal deficit, and balance of payments issues, laying the
foundation for future economic growth.

CONTROL AND INTERVENTION MEASURES BY GOVERNMENT

• Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA): Enacted in 1973, FERA imposed strict regulations on foreign
investment in India.
- Aimed to control and regulate foreign exchange dealings to stabilize the economy and prevent
exploitation.
• Nationalisation: The government opted to nationalize struggling companies, including textile mills, instead of
allowing them to shut down.
- Nationalization was seen as a measure to protect jobs and industries deemed crucial for economic
stability.
• Shift from Five-Year Plans to Annual Plans (1966-1969): India suspended its five-year plans and implemented
annual plans between 1966 and 1969.
- This period saw a shift in economic planning towards shorter-term strategies to address immediate
challenges.
• Industrial Policy of 1977
- Promotion of Cottage and Small Industries:
✓ The policy focused on promoting cottage and small industries in rural and small-town areas.
✓ Aimed to decentralize industrial growth and promote rural development.
- Classification of Small Sector:
✓ The policy classified the small sector into three groups: cottage and household sector, tiny sector, and
small-scale industries.
✓ This classification aimed to provide targeted support and incentives to different segments of the
small-scale industry.
✓ Economic Challenges: Aimed to prevent large business houses from gaining a dominant and
monopolistic position in the market.
✓ Sought to promote competition and a level playing field for small and medium-sized enterprises.

5.3 INDIAN ECONOMY BETWEEN 1980 TO 1991

The period between 1980 and 1991 was a crucial phase in India's economic history marked by significant challenges
and transformative reforms. A complex interplay of factors such as a balance of payments crisis, high inflation, fiscal
deficits, and industrial stagnation characterized this era.
Economic Challenges:
• High Inflation: Inflation was a major challenge, averaging around 8.6% during this period and reaching a peak
of 17% in 1991.
- This high inflation eroded the purchasing power of the rupee and contributed to economic instability.
• Fiscal Deficits: The fiscal deficit of the government was a significant concern, averaging around 8.4% of GDP
during this period.
- High fiscal deficits led to increased government borrowing, crowding out private investment, and fueling
inflation.
• Balance of Payments Crisis: India faced a severe balance of payments crisis in the late 1980s. Foreign exchange
reserves were depleted, leading to a situation where India could barely cover two weeks of imports.
• Industrial Stagnation: The industrial sector faced stagnation, with growth rates remaining low.

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- This was partly due to the continuation of the License Raj, which imposed stringent regulations on
industrial production and investment, leading to inefficiencies and lack of competitiveness.
• Decline in Agriculture: Agriculture faced challenges, with growth rates slowing down.
- The failure of the monsoon in some years exacerbated the situation, leading to a decline in agricultural
output and food shortages.
• External Debt: India's external debt increased significantly during this period, reaching unsustainable levels.
- The country became increasingly reliant on external borrowing to finance its development projects and
meet its international obligations.

5.4 LIBERALIZATION, PRIVATIZATION, AND GLOBALIZATION (LPG) REFORMS IN INDIA

The LPG reforms in India, initiated in the early 1990s, marked a significant shift in the country's economic policies.
These reforms were aimed at liberalizing the economy, promoting privatization, and integrating India into the global
economy. Here is a comprehensive explanation of the LPG reforms:
Liberalization:
• Industrial Licensing: The industrial licensing regime, which restricted the entry and expansion of industries,
was significantly relaxed. Industries were freed from the requirement of obtaining licenses for most sectors,
except for a few industries related to security and strategic concerns.
• Foreign Investment: The government liberalized foreign investment policies, allowing greater foreign direct
investment (FDI) in various sectors. Automatic approval routes were introduced for FDI in many sectors,
reducing bureaucratic hurdles.
• Trade Liberalization: Trade policies were liberalized to promote exports and reduce import barriers. Tariffs
were lowered, and quantitative restrictions on imports were removed, leading to increased competition and
efficiency.
• Exchange Rate Reforms: The exchange rate regime was shifted from a fixed exchange rate system to a
managed float system, allowing the rupee to be partially determined by market forces. This move aimed to
promote exports and attract foreign investment.
• Financial Sector Reforms: The financial sector underwent significant reforms to enhance efficiency and
competition. Private sector banks were allowed to enter the banking industry, and measures were taken to
strengthen the banking system.
Privatization:
• Disinvestment: The government initiated the process of disinvesting its stake in public sector enterprises
(PSEs) to reduce its financial burden and improve efficiency. Strategic disinvestment and privatization of PSEs
were undertaken to bring in private sector efficiency and investment.
• Public Sector Reforms: Measures were taken to improve the performance of public sector enterprises,
including restructuring, modernization, and better corporate governance practices. The focus was on making
PSEs more competitive and efficient.

Globalization:
• Integration with Global Economy: India embraced globalization by integrating its economy with the global
economy. This involved opening up the economy to foreign trade, investment, and technology.
• Trade Agreements: India entered into trade agreements and partnerships with various countries and
international organizations to expand its trade relations and access new markets. The country also became a
member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, committing to trade liberalization and economic
reforms.

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IMPACT OF LPG REFORMS
• Economic Growth: The LPG reforms led to a significant acceleration in India's economic growth. The GDP
growth rate increased from around 5% in the 1980s to an average of over 7% in the 1990s and 2000s.
• Foreign Investment: Foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows increased significantly, indicating growing
confidence in India's economic prospects. FDI inflows rose from $98 million in 1990-91 to $36.50 billion in
2020-21.
• Export Growth: The reforms led to a surge in export growth, with India's exports expanding rapidly. India's
exports increased from $18.7 billion in 1990-91 to $291.8 billion in 2020-21.
• Industrial Development: The industrial sector witnessed significant development, with the growth of new
industries and the modernization of existing ones. The reforms also led to the emergence of new sectors such
as information technology (IT) and telecommunications.
• Job Creation: The reforms contributed to job creation, particularly in the services sector. The growth of sectors
such as IT, BPO, and retail led to the creation of millions of new jobs.
• Infrastructure Development: The reforms spurred infrastructure development, with investments in sectors
such as transportation, energy, and telecommunications. This improved connectivity and supported economic
growth.
• Poverty Reduction: The reforms contributed to poverty reduction by creating new economic opportunities
and increasing incomes. The percentage of the population living below the poverty line decreased from 45%
in 1993-94 to 22% in 2011-12.

CHALLENGES AND CRITICISM

• Income Inequality: The benefits of economic growth were unevenly distributed, leading to widening income
inequalities. The gap between the rich and the poor widened, leading to social tensions.
• Job Displacement: The reforms led to job displacement in some sectors, particularly in traditional industries.
This resulted in social unrest and protests in some parts of the country.
• Environmental Degradation: Rapid industrialization and urbanization led to environmental degradation,
including pollution and depletion of natural resources. This raised concerns about sustainability and long-term
environmental impact.
• Financial Sector Challenges: The rapid expansion of the financial sector led to concerns about financial
stability. The banking sector faced challenges such as non-performing assets (NPAs) and corporate governance
issues.
• Global Economic Vulnerability: India's increased integration with the global economy made it more vulnerable
to external economic shocks, such as fluctuations in global commodity prices and changes in international
financial markets.

5.5 INDIAN ECONOMY SINCE 1991

Economic Growth and Reforms:
• Average Annual GDP Growth Rate: 6% to 7% since the start of the 21st century.
• Economic Liberalization: India adopted broad economic liberalization in 1991, leading to increased foreign
investment, improved business environment, and enhanced economic competitiveness.
• Domestic Consumption: Domestic consumption has been a significant driver of economic growth.
• Structural Reforms: Apart from liberalization, India has undertaken structural reforms in various sectors such
as agriculture, labor, and education to improve efficiency and productivity.

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• Ease of Doing Business: Initiatives like Make in India and Startup India have been launched to improve the
ease of doing business in the country
• Trade Deficit: India has been facing a trade deficit due to higher imports compared to exports, which is a
challenge for the economy.
Unemployment and Employment
• Unemployment Rate: A significant challenge in creating jobs, with the country facing a need to create 90
million non-farm jobs between 2023 and 2030 to increase productivity and economic growth.
• Skill Development: The government has initiated various skill development programs to enhance
employability and bridge the skill gap.
• Informal Sector: A large portion of India's workforce is employed in the informal sector, which lacks job
security and social security benefits.
Infrastructure Development
• Investments: The government has been investing heavily in infrastructure projects, including roads, highways,
ports, and airports.
• Public-Private Partnerships: PPPs have been instrumental in infrastructure development, especially in sectors
like roads and power.
• Connectivity: Improved connectivity has not only boosted economic activity but also facilitated rural
development and access to markets.
Digital Economy and Startups
• Digital India: The Digital India initiative aims to transform India into a digitally empowered society and
knowledge economy.
• Startup Ecosystem: India has witnessed a thriving startup ecosystem, supported by initiatives like incubators,
accelerators, and funding schemes.
• Innovation: The focus on innovation has led to the emergence of several innovative startups in sectors like
fintech, health tech, and agritech.
Renewable Energy and Sustainability
• Renewable Energy Targets: India has set ambitious targets for renewable energy capacity, including 175 GW
by 2022 and 450 GW by 2030.
• Energy Efficiency: Initiatives like the Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) scheme aim to improve energy
efficiency in industries.
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): India is committed to achieving the SDGs, including those related to
clean energy, climate action, and sustainable cities.
Poverty and Inequality
• Poverty Alleviation Programs: The government has implemented various poverty alleviation programs like
the National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) and the National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM).
• Social Protection Schemes: Schemes like the National Social Assistance Program (NSAP) and the Pradhan
Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) aim to provide social security to vulnerable sections of society.
Other Major Developments
• Demonetization: India's demonetization in 2016 aimed to curb black money and increase digital transactions.
• Goods and Services Tax (GST): India implemented the GST in 2017 to simplify and harmonize indirect taxes.
• Agricultural Sector: The agricultural sector has been a significant contributor to India's economy, with the
government implementing various schemes to improve farmer incomes and increase agricultural productivity.

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• Education and Skill Development: Initiatives like Skill India and the National Education Policy aim to improve
the quality of education and skill development in the country.

5.6 INDIAN ECONOMY IN RECENT YEARS

Current status of Indian Economy:
• India is the 5th largest economy in the world with a GDP of more than $3.5 billion in 2023 according to the
latest IMF data. It will likely to become the 4th largest economy in 2025.
• The country's economy has been growing with a significant growth from its position as the 10th largest
economy a decade ago, to 5th at present.
- The service sector makes up more than 50% of GDP (risen from 51% in FY14 to around 55% in FY24) and
remains the fastest-growing sector.
- The industrial and agricultural sectors employ most of the labor force. The industrial sector contributes
27.5%, while Agriculture and allied sector share is 17.5% in the GDP.
• India's global dominance extends across agricultural commodities, making it the largest producer of milk,
pulses, and spices worldwide.
• India ranks second-largest producer of fruits, vegetables, tea, farmed fish, sugarcane, wheat, rice, cotton, and
sugar.
• India ranks 1st in milk production and contributed 24.64% to global milk production, in 2022-23.
• It registered a 48.3% increase during the last 8 years from 2015-16 to 2022-23.
• India’s rank has improved from 3rd to 2nd in global egg production (Dec 2023) and Egg production is growing
at the rate of more than 7% per annum in last 9 years.
• India has been the largest consumer and second largest producer and exporter of sugar in the world.
• India is the 3rd largest fish-producing country, accounting for 8% of the global fish production, and ranks 2nd
in meat production in the world.
• Emphasis on Ease of Doing Business: India has undertaken reforms to improve the ease of doing business,
streamline regulations, and attract investment.

India jumps 79 positions from 142nd (2014) to 63rd (2019) in 'World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Ranking 2020'.
• Digital Transformation: The government has prioritized digitalization and e-governance initiatives, promoting
digital payments, expanding internet connectivity, and leveraging technology for service delivery and financial
inclusion.
India with 89.5 million digital transactions in the year 2022 has topped the list of five countries in digital payments,
according to data from MyGov India.
• Start-up Ecosystem: India has witnessed the rise of a vibrant start-up ecosystem, fostering innovation,
entrepreneurship, and job creation. Various government initiatives and funding support have boosted the
growth of start-ups in sectors like technology, e-commerce, and fintech.
The Startup India initiative was launched on 16th January 2016, by the Hon’ble Prime Minister. Since the inception
of the initiative:
• India has emerged as the 3rd largest ecosystem for startups globally with over 1Lakhs DPIIT-recognized
startups across country.
• More than 110 unicorns are flourishing in India by Oct, 2023.

Indian Startup Ecosystem has seen exponential growth in past few years (2015-2022):
• 15X increase in the total funding of startups
• 9X increase in the number of investors
• 7X increase in the number of incubators

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CONCLUSION
Since independence, India's economic development has transformed from a planned economy to one embracing
economic liberalization and globalization, fostering entrepreneurship along the way. Despite challenges such as
poverty, inequality, and job creation, India has emerged as one of the world's fastest-growing major economies and a
key player in the global economy.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. What is the status of digitalization in the Indian economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest
improvements. (2023, 10 Marks)

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EDUCATIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA

6 SINCE INDEPENDENCE
Since independence, India has witnessed significant developments in the field of education and science. These
developments have been aimed at improving access to education, enhancing the quality of education, promoting
scientific research and innovation, and fostering national development.

6.1 RADHAKRISHNAN COMMISSION (1948–49)

The commission investigated university education throughout the nation. The main suggestions were these.
• Recommended a 12-year pre-university education system.
• Advocated for a mix of central, liberal, and occupational education in higher education.
• Proposed the establishment of rural universities based on the models of Shantiniketan and Jamia Millia.
• Suggested including university education in the Concurrent List of the Constitution.
• Called for the establishment of a national University Grants Commission (UGC) to oversee university
education.
• Emphasized the importance of retaining English in higher education.
• Recommended using the federal language as the medium of education where different from the mother
tongue, and learning a classical or modern Indian language where they are the same.
Steps taken on Radhakrishnan Commission (1948–49)
• The University Grants Commission was established in 1953 and granted autonomous statutory status by an
act of parliament in 1956.

6.2 MUDALIYAR COMMISSION FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION IN 1952

Although no formal policy was created, actions were taken based on the commission's reports. Key recommendations
were:
• The organizational structure of education be: 4-5 years primary education + 3 years of basic secondary + 4 years
of higher secondary' stage.
• The mode of teaching from memorization or rote learning to project-based, activity learning and group work.
• Qualified teachers be recruited with adequate salaries, in addition to teachers with more than ten years of
experience, and headmasters to inspect schools to ensure efficient functioning.
• In-service and practical training should be given to teacher trainees and training for teachers should vary from one
to two academic years based on whether students were graduates or held a higher secondary school leaving
certificate.
- Also, trainee teachers were to be given a stipend and no fees were to be charged for trainee teachers studying
in teacher training colleges.

6.3 KOTHARI EDUCATION COMMISSION (1964-66)

Congress was condemned in Parliament in 1964 for neglecting to promote a national education concept and vision.
Thus, Dr. D.S. Kothari's commission advised on national education policy. The commission's findings highlighted:
• Emphasized integrating work experience, moral education, and social responsibility into general education at
all levels.
• Recommended vocationalization of secondary education and strengthening advanced study centers.
• Advocated for prioritizing teacher training and quality.
• Highlighted the importance of using the mother tongue in school and college education.
• Suggested using regional languages in higher education.
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• Noted the increasing demand for secondary and higher education and the need for selective admissions to
meet this demand.
6.4 NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY 1968
Indira's first National Policy on Education (NPE) followed Kothari Commission recommendations.
Policy highlights included:
• Introduced free and mandatory education up to the age of 14.
• Aimed to improve teacher status and pay.
• Advocated for a three-language formula and regional language development.
• Emphasized parity in science and research education.
• Proposed allocating 6% of GDP to education, training, and teacher quality.
• Sought to provide cheap textbooks of higher quality and develop agriculture/industry education.

Analysis
• It was the first attempt to give Independent India's educational system direction, making it a significant
milestone.
• Three-language formula was praised for national integration. The policy's recognition of central government
education promotion was a promising start.
• Critics said that political compromise characterized the three-language model. Despite the good intentions, it
would burden pupils.
6.5 EDUCATION IN CONCURRENT LIST
• Before 1976, education was under state administrations, with the central government providing advice.
• The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976 included education in the Concurrent List, sharing
responsibility between the central and state governments.

6.6 NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY, 1986 (NEP)

It sought to create a national education system that provided high-quality education to all pupils, regardless of caste,
creed, sex, religion, etc. Some of its goals were:
• Aimed to provide high-quality education to all, regardless of caste, creed, sex, or religion.
• Goals included universal primary education, improving school quality, teaching computer skills in secondary
education, and empowering women and minorities.

6.7 ACHARYA RAMAMURTI COMMITTEE

• Created the Action Plan for the NPE 1986 to achieve universal enrollment and retention of children in schools
up to 14 years of age.

Key Features of Acharya Ramamurti Committee Achievements of NPE 1986

• Introduction of the "Plus Two" Stage: • A milestone in Indian Education: NPE 1986 was a
Recommended incorporating the "plus two" significant milestone in independent India's educational
stage in all schools to streamline the transition history.
from secondary to higher education. • Promotion of Key Values: Emphasized secularism,
• Decentralization of Elementary Education: socialism, and democracy.
Emphasized the need for decentralized • Reducing Urban-Rural Disparities: Aimed to reduce
planning and control, suggesting local bodies educational disparities between urban and rural areas.
manage elementary education.

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• Value Education and Cultural Heritage: • Focus on Marginalized Groups: Prioritized education and
Stressed the importance of value education vocational training for women, SCs, and STs.
and understanding India's rich cultural • Three-Language Formula: Advocated for the study of the
heritage. mother tongue, Hindi, and English.
• Vocational Education: Prioritized vocational • Increased Education Spending: Recommended allocating
education to boost individual and national 6% of GDP to education.
productivity. • Quality and Accessibility of Textbooks: Focused on
providing high-quality, affordable textbooks.

6.8 RIGHT TO EDUCATION (86TH CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT ACT)

• The Directive Principles of State Policy in the Indian Constitution mandated free and compulsory education
until the age of 14, but this directive was not effectively implemented.
• In 1993, the Supreme Court ruled in J.P. Unnikrishnan vs. the State of Andhra Pradesh, establishing the right
to free education for children under 14 and providing legal recourse for inadequate educational facilities.
• The United Front administration proposed a Constitutional Amendment Bill in July 1997 to add Article 21A,
which was enacted in December 2002 as the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act.

86th Amendment Act

• Article 21A: This article mandates that "the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children
of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine."
• Impact: This amendment laid the foundation for the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which came into effect
on April 1, 2010, ensuring that every child between the ages of 6 and 14 has the right to free and compulsory
education.

6.9 NEW EDUCATION POLICY (NEP) 2020

• Holistic Education: Integrates arts, sports, and vocational skills with academic learning, fostering a well-
rounded development of students.
• Early Childhood Care and Education: Ensures quality education for children aged 3-6 years, emphasizing the
importance of early learning.
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• Foundational Literacy and Numeracy: Aims to achieve basic reading, writing, and mathematical skills by Grade
3, addressing early learning deficits.
• Flexible Curriculum and Choice-based Learning: Offers multidisciplinary study options and choice-based
learning, allowing students to pursue their interests and strengths.
• Multilingualism: Encourages the use of the mother tongue or local language as the medium of instruction until
at least Grade 5, promoting better understanding and cognitive development.
• Technology Integration: Emphasizes the use of technology to enhance teaching and learning, providing digital
infrastructure, e-resources, and online learning platforms, particularly in remote areas.
• Teacher Training and Professional Development: Focuses on improving the quality of teachers through
enhanced training, continuous professional development, and standardized recruitment processes.
• Assessment Reforms: Shifts from rote learning to competency-based assessments, promoting critical thinking
and analytical skills over high-stakes exams.
• Higher Education Reforms: Includes restructuring the higher education regulatory system, promoting research
and innovation, and establishing a National Research Foundation (NRF).
• Equity and Inclusion: Aims to address inequities in education access and quality, with special provisions for
disadvantaged groups, economically weaker sections, and students with disabilities.

6.10 SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS

After gaining independence in 1947, India has made remarkable strides in various scientific fields. Here are some key
developments:
Technical Education and Infrastructure
• Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs): The first IIT was established in Kharagpur, West Bengal, on August 18,
1951, followed by IITs in Bombay, Madras, Kanpur, and Delhi. These institutions have become premier
technical education hubs in India.
• Scientific Policy Resolution (1958): Emphasized the importance of fostering "pure, applied, and educational"
scientific research, laying the foundation for India's scientific development.

Space Research and Exploration

• Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR): Formed in 1962 under the Department of Atomic
Energy (DAE) to lead space research.
• Indian Space Policy-2023: It was approved by the Cabinet Committee on Security and released in public
domain. The Policy underwent extensive deliberations with industry groups and inter-ministerial
consultations.
• Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO): Established in 1969, ISRO launched India's first satellite, Rohini,
in 1980 using the SLV-3.
- Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan): In 2014, India became the first country to reach Mars' orbit on its
first attempt.
- Chandrayaan 1 and 3 Missions: Successful lunar missions that demonstrated India's capabilities in space
technology.
- Aditya L-1 to study the Sun was also launched in recent times.
- Future Missions: Gaganyaan (India's first manned space mission) and Sukrayaan Mission to study Venus.

Defence Research and Development

• Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO): Created by merging several technical and defense
organizations, DRDO has become India's premier military research and development body.

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Nuclear Technology
• Nuclear Power Generation: Significant advancements have been made in nuclear power for energy
production. Ex: India formulated the three-stage nuclear power programme in the 1950s, Apsara, the
first nuclear fission reactor, was developed in 1956, India currently has 23 operational fission reactors, has its
own Tokamak programmes and also is a member of the ITER project.
• Nuclear Weapons Program: India's first nuclear test in 1974 and subsequent tests in 1998 established it as a
nuclear weapons state, marking critical milestones in its nuclear capabilities.

6.11 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) AND SOFTWARE

IT Services and Outsourcing
• Global Leadership: India has established itself as a global hub for IT services and software development.
Leading Indian IT companies like TCS, Infosys, and Wipro offer a wide range of services, including software
development, IT consulting, and business process outsourcing (BPO).
• Outsourcing Destination: India is a preferred destination for outsourcing due to its large pool of skilled
professionals, cost-effective services, and robust infrastructure.

Software Development
• Sector Contributions: Indian software developers have made significant contributions across various sectors
such as finance, healthcare, e-commerce, and telecommunications. They are known for their expertise in
emerging technologies like artificial intelligence, machine learning, and blockchain.
• Innovation and Startups: India has a vibrant startup ecosystem with numerous tech startups driving
innovation in software development and IT services.
• Employment: The IT and software sector is a major employment generator, providing jobs to millions of
professionals across the country.
India's IT and software industry continues to be a cornerstone of its economic development, showcasing the country's
capability to deliver high-quality technology solutions on a global scale.

6.12 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND PHARMACEUTICALS

Pharmaceutical Industry
• Advancements in Drug Development: Indian pharmaceutical companies have made significant strides in drug
research and development, producing a wide range of generic and patented medications.
• Global Supply: India is a major supplier of generic medicines globally, meeting over 50% of Africa's
requirements, approximately 40% of the generic demand in the US, and about 25% of all medicine in the UK.
- Because of this, India is known as “pharmacy of the world”.

Biotechnology Research:
• Innovation in Biotechnology: India has made considerable progress in biotechnology, particularly in genetic
engineering, bioinformatics, and biopharmaceuticals. Research institutions and biotech companies play a
pivotal role in scientific breakthroughs and drug discovery.
• India's bio-economy has grown 13-fold in the last 10 years from $10 billion in 2014 to over $130 billion in
2024. India is now being rated among top 12 bio-manufacturers in the world.
• Key initiatives and programme include:
- Genome India Flagship Programme: The goal is to start with and execute whole genome sequencing and
subsequent data analysis of 10,000 individuals representing the country’s diverse population.
- National Biopharma Mission (NBM): An industry-Academia Collaborative Mission for accelerating
biopharmaceutical development in the country. Under this Mission the Government has launched

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Innovate in India (i3) programme to create an enabling ecosystem to promote entrepreneurship and
indigenous manufacturing in the sector.
• Institutional Support: The establishment of the Department of Biotechnology under the Ministry of Science
and Technology in 1986 significantly boosted development in this field, supporting research and application in
various sectors.
• Agricultural Impact: Biotechnology has also positively impacted Indian agriculture, enhancing crop yields, and
resistance to pests and diseases through genetic modification. Ex: BT-cotton, BT-Mustard etc.

6.13 RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGIES

Solar Power
• Key Projects: The country has launched ambitious projects like • India stands 4th globally in Renewable
the National Solar Mission and set up massive solar parks, Energy Installed Capacity (including
aiming to increase solar power capacity to 100 GW by 2022. Large Hydro), 4th in Wind Power
• India was the leader country to start initiatives like – capacity & 4th in Solar Power capacity
International Solar Alliance (ISA) and One Sun One World One (as per REN21 Renewable’s 2022 Global
Grid (OSOWOG) initiative. Status Report).

Environmental Technologies:
• Innovation in Environmental Solutions: Indian scientists and engineers have developed technologies to
address environmental challenges, including waste management, pollution control, and water conservation.
• Waste Management: Advanced methods for recycling and managing waste are being implemented to tackle
urban and industrial waste efficiently. Ex: automatic waste segregator, Onsite waste processing like
Composting/Biomethanation/Bio CNG, gasifiers/pyrolysis, LOTUS-HR program.
• Pollution Control: Innovative technologies for air and water pollution control are being developed to mitigate
the adverse effects of industrialization and urbanization. Ex: Electric vehicles, Wind Augmentation and Air
Purifying Unit (WAYU) device, Pariyayantra Filtration Units on Buses etc.
• Water Conservation: Techniques like rainwater harvesting and efficient irrigation systems, Water Technology
Initiative (WTI), Leveraging AI and IoT for water management etc.

6.14 SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AND RESEARCH India’s rank in science and innovation:
Premier Research Institutes • Global Innovation Index (203
• Esteemed Institutions: India is home to prestigious research 40th position.
institutions such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), • International IP Index (2024): 42nd.
Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISERs), • India is the fifth amongst spacefaring
and Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) labs. nations.
These institutions drive innovative research and technological • 2nd largest telecommunication
advancements. industry.
• Department of Science and Technology (DST): Established in
1971, DST has been pivotal in promoting and identifying priority R&D areas in various science and technology
fields. It also plays a crucial role in international scientific and technological collaborations and fostering
science and technology entrepreneurship.

Science Education and Research Funding

• Government Initiatives: The Indian government has consistently focused on promoting science education and
research funding, supporting scientific research, and developing infrastructure.

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• Antarctic Missions: India's commitment to polar research began with the first Indian Antarctic mission in 1981,
leading to the establishment of the "Indian Antarctic Programme." The Dakshin Gangotri base received annual
missions, and in 1991, India constructed Maitri, a permanent Antarctic base that remains operational.

Institution of Eminence (IoE)

• IoE Status: In 2018, the government awarded Institution of Eminence (IoE) status to three public and three
private institutions: IIT-Delhi, IIT-Bombay, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), BITS-Pilani, Manipal Academy of
Higher Education, and the proposed Jio Institute near Navi Mumbai.
• Policy Approval: The Union Cabinet approved the UGC's 'Institutions of Eminence Deemed to be Universities
Regulations 2017' in August 2017, facilitating the establishment and recognition of these top-tier institution.

INDIA’S INITIATIVES TO PROMOTE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & INNOVATION

• Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), 2023: It aims to provide high level strategic direction for
research, innovation and entrepreneurship in the fields of natural sciences including mathematical sciences,
engineering and technology, environmental and earth sciences, health and agriculture.
• INSPIRE (Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research): To attract meritorious youth to study basic and
natural sciences at the college and university level with the ultimate aim is to expand the R&D base of the
country.
• National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS): To open technology innovation hubs
(TIH), Application innovation hubs, and Technology translation research parks to provide a huge impetus to
nation's scientific, engineering, and technologically innovative capabilities.
• National Quantum Mission: Aim to seed, nurture and scale up scientific and industrial R&D and create a vibrant
& innovative ecosystem in Quantum Technology.
• National Supercomputing mission (NSM): It aims to provide the country with supercomputing infrastructure
to meet the increasing computational demands of academia, researchers, MSMEs, and startups.
• Atal Innovation Mission - Atal Tinkering Labs (ATLs), Atal Incubation Centres (AIC), Atal New India Challenges
(ANICs).
• AIM-PRIME (Program for Researchers on Innovations, Market-Readiness & Entrepreneurship): It is an
initiative to promote and support science-based deep-tech startups & ventures across India.
Conclusion: The scientific developments in India have significantly contributed to national progress, technological
innovation, and global recognition. From establishing premier research institutes to pioneering space missions and
promoting renewable energy, India's advancements showcase its commitment to science and technology.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these
achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society? (2021, 15 Marks)
2. Why is there so much activity in the field of biotechnology in our country? How has this activity benefitted the
field of biopharma? (2018, 15 Marks)
3. With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts
and fears associated with nuclear energy. (2018, 15 Marks)
4. Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this
technology has helped India in its socio-economic development? (2016, 12,5 Marks)

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ANTIM
General Studies-I
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7 WARS AND EMERGENCY AFTER INDEPENDENCE IN INDIA

India has experienced religious violence, Naxalism, terrorism, and regional separatist insurgencies. The country also
has unresolved territorial disputes with China, leading to conflicts in 1962 and 1967, and with Pakistan, resulting in
wars in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999.

7.1 INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR (1947-48)

• Background of the Conflict: The Indo-Pak War of 1947 arose soon after India gained independence, triggered
by Pakistan's attempt to annex Jammu and Kashmir.
• Timeline of the War: The conflict began on 22 October 1947 and continued until 5 January 1949, marked by
intense military engagements and territorial disputes.
• Role of Tribal Militias and Intervention: Pakistani tribal militias crossed into Kashmir, prompting Maharaja
Hari Singh to seek Indian military assistance, escalating the conflict into a full-scale war.
• Ceasefire and International Intervention: A ceasefire was declared on 1 January 1949 following UN
intervention at the request of Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, culminating in a resolution on 5 January
1949.
• Establishment of the Ceasefire Line: Initially reluctant, Pakistan accepted the UN resolution in November 1948
after facing military setbacks, leading to the establishment of a ceasefire line between the two nations.

7.2 INDIA-CHINA WAR (1962)

• Background of the Conflict: The Sino-India war of 1962 was triggered by China's rejection of the Mac Mohan
Line and its sudden capture of Tibet, catching India off guard.
• Military Engagement: India's 20,000 soldiers bravely faced China's 80,000 troops, engaging in combat for
nearly a month.
• Ceasefire Declaration: The conflict concluded in November 1962 when China declared a ceasefire, ending
hostilities.

7.3 INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR (1965)

• Background and Provocation: Pakistan's covert operation across the ceasefire line in Kashmir ignited the
conflict, stemming from unresolved tensions over Kashmir's status.
• Initial Pakistani Aggression: Pakistani forces disguised as Kashmiris launched attacks and occupied Kanjarkot
in Kutch, escalating tensions into a full-scale war in Jammu and Kashmir.
• International Intervention: The United Nations intervened, leading to the Tashkent Declaration on January
10, 1966, aimed at restoring peace between India and Pakistan.
• Military Operations and Stalemate: Despite fierce battles and claims of victory on both sides, the war
concluded in a stalemate with an UN-mandated ceasefire by September 22, 1965.

7.4 INDIA-CHINA WAR (1967)

Nathu La Conflict (1967)
• Background: Chinese troops infiltrated the Nathu La region in August 1967, prompting Indian troops to
demand their withdrawal from Indian territory.
• Major Clash: On September 11, 1967, PLA attacked Indian posts at Nathu La while Indian troops were laying
wire at the perceived border.
⎯ Indian artillery fire destroyed Chinese bunkers, leading to a significant loss for China.

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• Outcome: The conflict lasted until September 15, 1967, resulting in a major setback for China with
approximately 400 soldiers reported dead.

Cho La Conflict (1967)

• Chinese Intrusion: On October 1, 1967, Chinese troops intruded into the Cho La sector, challenging Indian
Army positions.
• Escalation to Fight: Arguments escalated into a fight, resulting in casualties on both sides. The conflict
concluded with China's retreat, despite significant Indian Army losses.
1.5.5 INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR (1971)
• Operation Genghis Khan: The Third Indo-Pak War of 1971 began with Pakistan's Operation Genghis Khan,
involving preemptive air strikes on Indian airbases on December 3, 1971.
• Naval Operations: India conducted Operation Python and Operation Trident, significantly damaging Karachi's
naval base and capturing multiple Pakistani vessels, including the PNS Ghazni and PNS Khyber.
• Dhaka's Fall and Simla Agreement: The Indian Air Force swiftly gained control of Dhaka after demolishing a
Pakistani airbase.
⎯ Pakistan surrendered on December 16, 1971, with the release of 90,000 Pakistani prisoners of war
following the Simla Agreement in July 1972.
• Strategic Impacts and International Support: India's military actions destroyed a significant portion of
Pakistan's navy, air force, and army, with political and financial backing for Pakistan from China and the United
States countered by support from the Soviet Union for India.

1.5.6 KARGIL WAR (1999)

• Background: In May 1999, Pakistani infiltrators occupied strategic positions in Kargil, prompting India's
military response.
• Operation Vijay: It was launched by the Indian Army to reclaim occupied territories in Kargil.
• Operation Safed Sagar: It marked the first extensive use of air power by the Indian Air Force in a conflict.
• Strategic Air Strikes: Indian Air Force Mirage 2000 aircraft executed precision strikes on key Pakistani
positions, including Tiger Hill.
• Outcome: Indian forces successfully recaptured critical posts in Batalik sector by July 11, 1999, leading to the
official end of the conflict on July 26, 1999.

1.6 INTERNAL EMERGENCY (1975)

• Proclamation of Emergency: On June 26, 1975, President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed declared a national
emergency in India, lasting for 21 months, suspending elections and curbing civil liberties.
• Socio-Economic Conditions: Post-1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, India faced severe socio-economic
distress, compounded by the US halting aid, leading to increased commodity prices and public discontent.
• Electoral Malpractice Allegations: The emergency roots trace back to 1971 when socialist leader Raj Narain
accused Indira Gandhi of electoral malpractices after losing to her in the Rae Bareli Lok Sabha seat.
• Allahabad High Court Verdict: On June 12, 1975, the Allahabad High Court found Indira Gandhi guilty of
electoral malpractice, disqualifying her from holding any elected post for six years.
• Opposition Agitation: Following the verdict, Jayaprakash Narayan launched a nationwide agitation, urging
government servants to reject corrupt orders and calling for Indira Gandhi's resignation.
• Government Response: In response to mounting protests and strikes, the government declared a state of
emergency on June 25, 1975, citing internal disturbances as a threat to national security.

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• Press Censorship and Arrests: Following the emergency declaration, press censorship was enforced,
opposition leaders were arrested, and major newspaper offices had their electricity cut to control information
dissemination.
• Impacts of Emergency: Centralized power, restricted fundamental rights, censored the press, and banned
organizations like RSS and Jamait-e-Islami, Short-term economic policies disrupted economic activities and
Long-term economic planning was neglected.
• Criticism of Emergency: Authorisation, Abuse of power and Erosion of democratic norms, Violation of Human
Rights, Manipulation of the judiciary, Forced sterilization, etc.
• End of Emergency: In January 1977, the government announced elections for March 1977, resulting in the
Congress's defeat as the opposition united under the Janata Party, ending Indira Gandhi's tenure.

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