CHAPTER 3:

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
Institutional Format
A. Research Design (classifications of research)
B. Respondents and Locale of the Study (sampling procedure,
target participants and research site)
C. Data Gathering Procedure
D. Research Instrument
E. Statistical Treatment of the Study (descriptive and
inferential statistics vs. qualitative analysis)
RESEARCH DESIGN
According to Kerlinger (cited in Kumar, 2011), a research design is a plan, structure
and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions
or problems.

The research design guides the researcher in planning the following aspects or
procedures of research:
1. Identifying the population of the study
2. Decision on whether to take the whole population or just select a sample
(Cochran formula)
3. How the sample of the study will be selected
4. Ethics in the selection of samples and data gathering
5. Choice of method in data collection
6. Considerations in the use of questionnaires
7. How interviews will be conducted
Research Designs in Quantitative Method
In quantitative research, some of the commonly used designs are classified by examining them
from three different perspectives: 1)the number of contacts with the study population;2)the
reference period of the study; and the nature of the investigation, (Kumar,2011).

1. Research Designs Based on the Number of Contacts

• Cross-sectional studies are commonly used in the social sciences. These studies aim to find out
the prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or issue, by taking a cross-
section of the population.
• The before and after design (also known as the pre-test / post-test design). This design can
measure change in situation, phenomenon, issue, problem or attitude. The before and after
design can be described as two sets of cross-section data collection points on the same
population to find out the change in the phenomenon or variable between two points in time.
The change is measured by comparing the difference in the phenomenon or variable before and
after the intervention.
• The longitudinal study design. This is useful to determine the pattern of extent of change in a
phenomenon, situation, problem or attitude in relation to time. Under this design, the study
population is visited a number of times at regular intervals, usually over a longer period.
2. Research Designs Based on the Reference Period
The reference period refers to the time frame in which a study is exploring a
phenomenon, situation, event or problem and may be categorized as 1) retrospective 2)
prospective and 3) retrospective-prospective.

• The retrospective study design is used to investigate a phenomenon, situation, problem or

issue that has happened in the past. The study may be conducted either on the basis of the
data available for that period or on the basis or respondents’ recall of the situation.

• The prospective study design attempts to establish the outcome of an event or what is likely
to happen, such as the likely prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or
outcome in the future.

• The retrospective-prospective study design. This applies to a study wherein available data are
analyzed and use as bases of future projections. It does not involve a control group. Trend
studies fall under this category.
3. Research Designs Based on the Nature of the Investigation

The following are classified under this category: 1) experimental 2) non-experimental

3) quasi-or semi-experimental

• The experimental design has an assumption of a cause-and-effect relationship. In

this design, the researcher introduces the intervention that is
assumed to be the cause of change and waits until it has produced the change.
• In the non-experimental design, the researcher observes a phenomenon and
attempts to establish what caused it. In this instance, the research starts from the
effect or outcome and attempts to determine causation.
• A semi-experimental or quasi-experimental study has the properties of both
experimental and non-experimental studies; part of the study may be
experimental and the other part non-experimental.
Research Designs in Qualitative Method
1. Case study
2. Ground theory – This is an approach to qualitative research data
collection and analysis in the social sciences. As cited by Hennink,
Hutter and Bailey (2011), grounded theory is not a theory itself; but
a process for developing empirical theory from qualitative research
that consist of a set of tasks and underlying principles through which
theory can be built up through careful observation of the social
world.
3. Phenomenology
4. Ethnography
Sampling Techniques/Strategies in Quantitative and
Qualitative Research Methods
• Since the total population cannot always be covered in every study,
there is a need to conduct the study using a reliable sample group.
• According to Kumar (2011), sampling is the process of selecting a few
(a sample) from a bigger group (the population) to become the basis
for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of
information, situation or outcome, regarding the bigger group.
• On the advantage side, it saves time, financial and human resources.
But on the disadvantage side, the researcher finds only an estimate or
a prediction of information about the population’s characteristics or
other data, which are essential to the research study.
Two factors may influence the degree of certainty about the inferences drawn from a
sample:
1. Findings based upon larger samples have higher level of certainty than those based on
smaller ones. As a rule,” the larger the sample size, the more accurate the findings.”
2. The greater the variation in the study population with respect to the characteristics
under study for a given sample size, the greater the uncertainty.
Bias must be avoided in the selection of the sample in order to achieve maximum precision
in estimates within a given sample size.
Examples of bias in the selection of a sample:
1. When sampling is done by non-random method such as if the selection is consciously or
unconsciously influenced by human choice;
2. When the sampling frame (list, index or other population records) which serves as the
basis of selection, does not cover the sampling population accurately and completely.
3. When a section of a sampling population is impossible to find or refuses to cooperate.
Types of sampling (Kumar, 2011)
There are three major types of sampling designs:

[Link] sampling
[Link]-probability sampling
[Link] Methods Sampling
 Probability Sampling
1. Random/Probability Sampling Design
• This is a sampling design wherein each element in
the population has an equal and independent
chance of selection in the sample. The concept of
independence means that the choice of one
element is not dependent upon the choice of
another element in the sampling or the selection
or rejection of the element does not affect the
inclusion or exclusion of another. For example, if
one of five close friends in a class was chosen but
refuses to participate in the survey if the other
four are not chosen, and the researcher therefore
is forced to select either the five or none, then
that sample will not be considered as
independent sample since the selection of one is
dependent upon the selection of the others.
Main Advantages of the Random/Probability
Samples
• As they represent the total sampling population, the inference drawn
from such samples can be generalized to the total sampling
population.

• Some statistical test based upon the theory of probability can be

applied only to data collected from random samples. Some of these
tests are important for establishing conclusive correlations.
Steps in Selecting a Simple Random Sample
• Define the target population
• Identify an existing sampling frame of the target population
or develop a new one.
• Assign a unique number to each element in the frame.
• Determine the sampling size (Slovin’s and Cochran formula)
• Randomly select the targeted number of population
elements.
 Techniques in Drawing Random Samples (Daniel, 2012)
1. Lottery method (also known as fishbowl technique.) The numbers
representing each element in the target population are placed in a
container and thoroughly mixed. Next, blindly select chips from the
container until the desired sample size has been obtained.

2. Table of random numbers. The numbers in a table of random

numbers are not arranged in any particular pattern. In using this
technique, the researcher should blindly select a starting point and
then systematically proceed in the table. Since this process is tedious
and time consuming, a statistical software may be used for a large
populations.

3. Randomly generated numbers using a computer program (i.e.,

random number generator). Activate the computer program with
random number generator. Key in a specific range of numbers from
hundreds, thousands, or millions and the random numbers will
appear….. from which you will pick your choices.
 Probability Sampling
2. Stratified sampling (sometimes called quota random sampling) – This is
probability sampling procedure in which the target population is first
separated into mutually exclusive, homogenous segments (strata), and
then a simple random sample is selected from each segment (stratum). The
samples selected from the various strata are then combined into a simple
sample (Daniel,2012).

3. Systematic Sampling (or interval random sampling) – A random

selection is made of the first element for the sample, then subsequent
elements are selected using a fixed or systematic interval until the desired
sample size is reached.

4. Cluster sampling – This is a probably sampling procedure wherein

elements of the population are randomly selected in naturally occurring
groupings or clusters. The clustering of sampling units may be based on
geographical locations (i.e. regional groupings), type of organization or
classes (i.e. school districts, grade 10 classes, etc.).
 Non-probability sampling
1. Availability sampling
• Under this sampling design, the sample elements are selected
from the target population based on their availability, on the
convenience of the researcher, and/or voluntary/self-selection.
Some reasons for this are: it is the least complicated sampling
procedure. However, availability sampling has its weaknesses,
such as it cannot target specific elements of the population. It is
least reliable; it does not represent population elements that are
not readily accessible, that are uncooperative and are hidden.
Moreover, it underestimates the variability in the population.
2. Purposive Sampling
• This is non-probability sampling procedure in which the
elements are selected from the target population on the basis
of their fit with the purposes of the study and specific inclusion
and exclusion criteria.
3. Quota sampling
• This a type of non-probability sampling procedure in
which the population is divided into mutually exclusive
subcategories, and the researcher solicits participation in
the study from members of the subcategories until a
target number of elements to be sampled from the
subcategories have been met.
4. Respondent-assisted Sampling
• In this sampling procedure, the elements are selected
from a target population with the assistance of previously
selected population elements. This sampling procedure is
often used in studying social networks, rare populations,
and hidden populations such as drug dealers and users
and other criminals or commercial sex workers, etc.
 Mixed-Methods Sampling
• This is a sampling method that combines different types of sampling method into a single design. This is
supported by the idea that weaknesses of one method may be compensated by the strengths of the
other method that is used. The use of mixed methods research designs was spurred by the application
of two key concepts. “multi method, multi-trait matrix and triangulation” which were introduced by
Campbell and Fiske in 1959 (multi-method-multi-trait) and the four types of triangulation by Denzin
(2009); “data triangulation, method logical triangulation, investigator triangulation, and theory
triangulation” (in Daniel,2012).

1. Telephone-Based Sampling
• This is a sampling procedure that utilizes telephone numbers as a sampling units. There are two
subtypes of telephone-based sampling, list-based sampling taken from the telephone directories, list
of employees, costumers, etc. and random digit dialing (RDD). The random sampling procedures
previously discussed can also be applied in the telephone-based sampling procedure.
2. Web-based Sampling
• In this sampling procedure, email addresses, website visits, and recruited users of the internet are
utilized as a sampling units. There are three categories of web-based sampling namely: list-based
sampling, sampling of website visits, and sampling from recruited panels of potential participants in
research projects.
3. Address-based Sampling (ABS)
• In this kind of sampling procedure, postal addresses are utilized as sampling units. The ABS sampling is
used mostly in national surveys.
4. Time-based Sampling
• Units of time are used as sampling units in this type of sampling. Preparation for this type of sampling
typically involves visits to the locations where the data will be collected observing the density of the
target population over time and gathering information from informants. Using the information obtained,
a sampling frame of time units is developed. Data might be collected several times per day at time
periods selected using simple random sampling or systematic sampling, upon the occurrence of a
specific event, or at specifically scheduled time intervals.
5. Space-based Sampling
• This refers to a set of sampling procedures that utilize space
as a sampling unit. This type of sampling is also referred to
as area sampling, spatial sampling, location-based sampling,
venue-based sampling and facility-based sampling. The
space may be geographical units or various locations or
venues. It is the principal mode of sampling utilized in
nationwide personal interviews surveys, environmental
sampling, and ecological sampling. (Daniel, 2012).
Instrumentation/Data Gathering Tools and
Techniques in Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
appropriate tools and techniques have to be used in gathering information needed,
to come up with valid and reliable information.

Approaches to Data Gathering

In research, the required information could be taken from either primary or
secondary sources, or both. The information from primary sources are called primary
data, while those coming from secondary sources are referred to as secondary data.

Primary data can be gathered through observation, interview process or

questionnaire.
 Primary Data
1. Observation – As Kumar (2011) defines it, observation is a “purposeful, systematic and
selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes
place.”
• Participants Observation- when the researcher participates in the activities of the group
being observed in the same manner as its members whether they know that they are
being observed or not.

• Non-participant Observation- this is the kind of observation wherein the researcher

does not get involved in the activities of the group but remains a passive observer,
watching and listening to the group’s activities and drawing conclusions from these.
Primary data
2. The interview – This refers to any person-to-person interaction, either face-to-face
or otherwise, between two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind
(Kumar, 2011).
Two different categories of interview:
• Unstructured interview. This is dominantly used in qualitative research.
Under this category the researcher has compete freedom to use the words,
content and structure of the interview, and the order to sequence of
questions according to the context of the study.

• Structured interview. In this category, the researcher asks a predetermined

set of questions as specified in the interview schedule prepared by the
researcher/interviewer for a person-to-person interaction which may be
done face-to-face, through telephone, or by other electronic media. The
main advantage of the structured interview is that it provides uniform
information which assures the comparability of data.
Primary data
3. The questionnaire – This is written list of questions intended to provide answers
to the problems of the study. The respondents read and interpret what are
expected in the questions then write down the answers. It has to undergo content
and construct validation before it is administered to respondents. Likewise, the
layout of the questionnaire is one which is developed in an interactive style.
According to Flick (2011) questionnaires studies aim at receiving comparable
answers from all participants. Therefore the questions, as well as the interview
situation, are designed in an identical way for all participants.
Choosing between an interview and a Questionnaire
1. The nature of the investigation. Since questionnaire ensures anonymity, it is
preferred for studies that involve issues which respondents may feel reluctant to
discuss with an investigator such as drug use, sexuality, criminal activities,
personal finances, etc. However, depending on the type of the study population
and the skills of the interviewer, there are situations wherein better information
about sensitive issues can be obtained by interviewing respondents. Hence, in
this situation, both questionnaire and interview may be utilized.

2. The geographical distribution of the study population. In cases wherein the

potential respondents are scattered over a wide geographical area, using the
questionnaire is a better choice since interviewing would entail high cost.

3. The type of study population. For study populations that are illiterate, very
young, very old, or handicapped, the interview or observation is the best option.
Advantages of the questionnaire

• It is less expensive
• It offers greater anonymity since there is no face-to-face interaction between the researcher and
the respondent.
Advantages of the interview
• It is more appropriate for complex situations such as the interviewer has the opportunity to
prepare a respondent before asking sensitive questions and to explain complex ones to
respondents in person.
• It is useful for collecting in-depth information by probing.
• It can supplement information obtained from responses gathered through observation of non-
verbal reactions.
• The interviewer can explain the questions or put them in a form that is understood by the
respondent.
• Interviewing has a wider application since it can be used with almost any type of population:
children, the handicapped, illiterate, or very old.
Guidelines in Constructing a Research Instrument
To ensure the validity of the instrument, make sure that the questions relate to the
objectives of the study.
1. Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives, research questions or
hypothesis, if any, to be tested.
2. List all the relevant question or hypothesis that need to be answered through your
study.
3. For each question identified in step 2, list the information required to answer it.
4. Construct the question that you want to ask from your respondents to obtain the
required information.
5. Use simple language to be easily understood.
6. Do not use ambiguous questions, or those that contain more than one meaning and
which can be interpreted differently respondents.
 Validation of the Research Instrument
1. Consultation with experts is one, in order to ensure that the theoretical constructs directly related to the
major concepts of the study are fully established.
2. Pre-testing of the revised questionnaire to thirty (30) individuals who resemble the characteristics of the
intended respondents of the study but who will not be the actual respondents. The purposes of this trial run
are to determine the language suitability and comprehensibility of the item, ease in following directions from
the point of view of the respondents, the average length of time required to finish answering the
questionnaires, as well as to determine other problems relevant to the activity.
3. Item analysis is done after the pre-testing. The accomplished questionnaires are scored and subjected to a
test of reliability. Reliability is one very important criterion against which the merits of a research instrument is
judged. It refers to the degree of consistency and precision or accuracy that a measuring instrument
demonstrates. According to Coakes (2013) the test for reliability has several different models, but the one
most commonly used is the Cronbach’s Alpha, a test for internal consistency, which is based on the average
correlation of items within a test. Alpha values ranging from 0.70 or higher are considered acceptable; hence
those items in the questionnaire with acceptable alpha values may be retained. Those items that do not meet
acceptable standards have to be revised to fit into the context of the study before the questionnaire is
administered in its final form.
Secondary Data
Data from secondary Sources through Document Analysis
• Demographic information, census, surveys on labor force, health reports,
and economic forecast are examples of data found in government or semi-
government publications.
• Preview of researches done by others could also provide some required
information.
• Historical and personal records and diaries could also provide some
needed information.
• Published reports in newspaper, magazines or in the internet could also be
sources of secondary data.
Statistical Treatment of Data
Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of
the data in a study.

1. The distribution concerns the frequency of each value.

2. The central tendency concerns the averages of the values.
3. The variability or dispersion concerns how spread out the values
are.
Inferential statistics use measurements from the sample of
subjects in the experiment to compare the treatment groups
and make generalizations about the larger population of
subjects.
That value along with the degrees of freedom, a measure
related to the sample size, and the rejection criteria are used
to determine whether differences exist between the
treatment groups.
Statistical methods can analyze one variable at a time
(i.e., univariate analysis) or more than one variable together
at the same time (i.e., multivariate analysis).
Qualitative data analysis involves the identification,
examination, and interpretation of patterns and
themes in textual data and determines how these
patterns and themes help answer the research questions
at hand.

• Analysis (Use of models of framework)

• Coding (inductive and deductive coding)
• Thematization