COMPUTER NETWORK

COMPUTER NETWORKS
Course Code: 21CS3003

UNIT-1

INTERNET: A BRIEF HISTORY:

The history of the internet is a fascinating journey of technological advancements,

collaborations, and innovations. Here’s a brief overview:

1960s: The Foundations

 ARPANET: The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was

developed by the U.S. Department of Defense in the late 1960s. It was the first
operational packet-switching network and the precursor to the internet. The first message
was sent over ARPANET on October 29, 1969.

1970s: Early Developments

 Email: Ray Tomlinson developed the first email program in 1971, allowing messages to
be sent between users on different hosts connected to ARPANET.
 TCP/IP Protocol: Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn developed the Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) in the mid-1970s, which became the standard
networking protocol.

1980s: Expansion and Standardization

 Domain Name System (DNS): Introduced in 1983 by Paul Mockapetris, DNS translated
human-friendly domain names (like www.example.com) into IP addresses.
 NSFNET: The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) was created in 1986 to
connect supercomputing centers across the United States. It became a key backbone
network that expanded the reach of the internet.

1990s: The World Wide Web and Commercialization

 World Wide Web (WWW): Tim Berners-Lee, a British scientist, invented the World
Wide Web in 1989 while working at CERN. The first website was launched in 1991.
 Mosaic Browser: Released in 1993, Mosaic was the first widely used web browser,
developed by Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina. It popularized the web and made it
accessible to the public.
 Commercialization: In 1995, the NSFNET was decommissioned, and the internet was
opened to commercial traffic. This period saw the rise of major internet companies,
including Amazon (1994), Yahoo (1994), and Google (1998).

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2000s: Broadband and Social Media

 Broadband: The widespread adoption of broadband internet in the early 2000s provided
faster and more reliable internet connections, replacing dial-up.
 Social Media: Platforms like MySpace (2003), Facebook (2004), YouTube (2005), and
Twitter (2006) transformed how people interacted online, creating new forms of
communication and content sharing.

2010s: Mobile Internet and Cloud Computing

 Smartphones: The proliferation of smartphones, particularly after the release of the

iPhone in 2007, made mobile internet access ubiquitous.
 Cloud Computing: Services like Amazon Web Services (AWS), Google Cloud, and
Microsoft Azure allowed businesses and individuals to store and process data remotely,
enabling scalable and flexible computing resources.

2020s: Ongoing Innovations

 5G Networks: The deployment of 5G networks is revolutionizing internet speeds and

connectivity, enabling new applications like the Internet of Things (IoT) and autonomous
vehicles.
 Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI technologies are increasingly integrated into internet
services, enhancing user experiences through personalized recommendations, chatbots,
and more.

The internet continues to evolve, driven by advances in technology and changes in how people
and businesses use it. From its origins as a military research project to its current role as a global
communication and information network, the internet has had a profound impact on nearly every
aspect of modern life.

INTERNET STANDARDS AND STANDARDS ORGANIZATION:

Internet standards are essential to ensure interoperability, reliability, and effective

communication across the global network. Several key organizations are involved
in the development, maintenance, and promotion of these standards. Here’s an
overview:

Key Organizations

1. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

 Role: The IETF is the main body responsible for developing and promoting
voluntary internet standards, particularly those related to the TCP/IP
protocol suite.

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 Structure: It operates as a large, open international community of network

designers, operators, vendors, and researchers.
 Standards Process: Standards are developed through a consensus-based
process. The IETF's primary output is a series of documents known as
Request for Comments (RFCs). Once an RFC is adopted as a standard, it
becomes an Internet Standard.
 Examples: HTTP/1.1 (RFC 2616), IPv6 (RFC 8200), and TLS (RFC 5246).

2. Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

 Role: The IAB provides architectural oversight of the internet’s design and
protocols. It also manages the RFC series.
 Responsibilities: The IAB oversees the IETF, appoints the Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and serves as an advisory body to the
Internet Society (ISOC).

3. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)

 Role: IANA is responsible for coordinating some of the key elements that
keep the internet running smoothly, including the allocation of IP addresses
and management of the Domain Name System (DNS) root zone.
 Structure: It operates under the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers (ICANN).

4. Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

 Role: ICANN oversees the global domain name system, including the
coordination of domain names (like .com, .org) and IP address spaces.
 Responsibilities: ICANN ensures the stable and secure operation of the
unique identifier systems of the internet.

5. World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)

 Role: The W3C develops standards for the World Wide Web, focusing on
ensuring long-term growth and accessibility of the web.
 Structure: It is led by web inventor Tim Berners-Lee and consists of
member organizations that work together to develop web standards.
 Standards Process: W3C standards are developed through a collaborative
process involving working groups and community input. Successful
proposals become W3C Recommendations.

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 Examples: HTML, CSS, XML.

Development and Implementation of Standards

1. Proposal and Drafting

o Standards begin as proposals or drafts submitted by individuals or
working groups.
o These drafts are discussed, reviewed, and revised within the relevant
standards organization.

2. Consensus and Review

o The draft standards undergo a period of public review and comment.
o Consensus is reached through discussions, often involving multiple
iterations and revisions.

3. Publication and Adoption

o Once consensus is achieved, the standard is published as an official
document (e.g., RFC, W3C Recommendation).
o Vendors and developers implement these standards in hardware,
software, and services to ensure interoperability.

4. Maintenance and Updates

o Standards are periodically reviewed and updated to address new
technological developments and feedback from the community.
o Amendments and new versions are published as needed to keep the
standards relevant and effective.

Importance of Internet Standards

 Interoperability: Standards ensure that different systems, devices, and

applications can work together seamlessly.
 Reliability: Adhering to standards improves the reliability and robustness of
internet services and infrastructure.
 Security: Standards incorporate best practices and protocols to enhance the
security of communications and data exchange.
 Scalability: Standards provide a framework for scalable growth, enabling
the internet to support increasing numbers of users and devices.
 Innovation: By providing a stable foundation, standards foster innovation
and the development of new technologies and applications.

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Internet standards and the organizations that develop them are crucial to the
continued growth, stability, and functionality of the global internet. Their
collaborative and consensus-driven processes ensure that the internet remains
open, secure, and accessible to all.

OSI REFERENCE MODEL:

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model is a conceptual

framework used to understand and design the functions of a networking or
telecommunication system. It divides the process of communication into seven
distinct layers, each with specific responsibilities and functions. This model is a
standard reference to aid in the design and understanding of network protocols.

OSI Model Layers

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

o Function: Deals with the physical connection between devices,
including the hardware and transmission media. It is concerned with
the transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical
medium.
o Key Elements: Cables, switches, hubs, Network Interface Cards
(NICs), and physical network interfaces.
o Protocols and Standards: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), USB, Bluetooth,
and DSL.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
o Function: Provides node-to-node data transfer—a link between two
directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that
may occur in the physical layer.
o Sub-layers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control
(MAC).
o Key Elements: MAC addresses, switches, bridges.
o Protocols and Standards: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), PPP, HDLC,
Frame Relay.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3)
o Function: Responsible for the delivery of packets from the source
host to the destination host based on their logical addresses. It handles
routing through intermediate routers.
o Key Elements: Routers, logical IP addressing, packet forwarding.
o Protocols and Standards: IP (IPv4/IPv6), ICMP, OSPF, RIP.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

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o Function: Ensures complete data transfer and handles error

correction, data flow control, and re-transmission. It provides end-to-
end communication services for applications.
o Key Elements: Port numbers, segmentation, reassembly, and flow
control.
o Protocols and Standards: TCP, UDP, SCTP.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5)
o Function: Manages sessions or connections between applications. It
controls the dialogues (connections) between computers, establishing,
managing, and terminating connections.
o Key Elements: Session establishment, maintenance, and termination.
o Protocols and Standards: NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
o Function: Translates data between the application layer and the
network. It ensures that data is in a usable format and handles data
encryption and compression.
o Key Elements: Data translation, encryption, decryption, compression.
o Protocols and Standards: SSL/TLS, JPEG, GIF, ASCII, EBCDIC.
7. Application Layer (Layer 7)
o Function: Provides network services directly to user applications. It
serves as the interface between the network and the application
software.
o Key Elements: Application services, network processes to
applications.
o Protocols and Standards: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, SNMP.

Key Concepts and Design Principles

1. Layer Independence: Each layer operates independently of the others,

meaning changes in one layer should not necessitate changes in another.
2. Encapsulation: Data from one layer is encapsulated with the necessary
protocol information before being passed to the next layer.
3. Modularity: The layered approach allows network designers and engineers
to focus on one layer at a time, simplifying troubleshooting and
development.
4. Interoperability: By adhering to standardized protocols at each layer,
equipment and applications from different vendors can interoperate
seamlessly.

How OSI Layers Work Together

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When data is sent from a source to a destination, it travels down through the OSI
layers of the source device, over the network, and then up through the OSI layers
of the destination device:

1. Source Device:
o Application Layer: User initiates a request (e.g., web page request via
HTTP).
o Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted if necessary.
o Session Layer: Session is established if needed.
o Transport Layer: Data is segmented and port numbers are added.
o Network Layer: IP address of the destination is added.
o Data Link Layer: MAC address of the next hop is added, frames are
created.
o Physical Layer: Data is converted into signals for transmission.
2. Transmission over Network:
o The physical media carry the signals to the destination device.
3. Destination Device:
o Physical Layer: Signals are received and converted back into bits.
o Data Link Layer: Frames are checked for errors and stripped of MAC
addresses.
o Network Layer: Packets are checked and stripped of IP addresses.
o Transport Layer: Segments are reassembled and directed to the
appropriate application based on port numbers.
o Session Layer: Session management information is used if applicable.
o Presentation Layer: Data is decrypted and formatted for the
application.
o Application Layer: Data is presented to the user’s application.

Advantages of the OSI Model

 Standardization: Promotes industry standardization, ensuring products

from different vendors can work together.
 Modularity: Simplifies network design and troubleshooting by
compartmentalizing functions into discrete layers.
 Flexibility: Allows different types of network hardware and software to
communicate.
 Interoperability: Facilitates compatibility and interoperability between
diverse systems and technologies.

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The OSI model is a fundamental framework in the field of networking, providing a

universal set of standards for network communication and a common language for
networking professionals.

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TCP/IP MODEL:

The TCP/IP model is a simpler, more practical framework for understanding and
designing network communications compared to the OSI model. It consists of four
layers, each with specific functions and protocols.

TCP/IP Model Layers

1. Network Interface Layer (Link Layer)

o Function: Handles the physical connection between devices and
manages how data is physically transmitted over the network. It
includes the hardware and the media used for communication.
o Key Elements: Network interfaces, Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi.

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o Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), ARP (Address Resolution

Protocol).
2. Internet Layer
o Function: Responsible for addressing, routing, and delivering packets
across networks. It determines the best path for data to travel from the
source to the destination.
o Key Elements: IP addresses, routers.
o Protocols: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).
3. Transport Layer
o Function: Ensures reliable data transfer between devices. It handles
error correction, data flow control, and re-transmission of lost data. It
also segments and reassembles data for communication.
o Key Elements: Port numbers, data segmentation.
o Protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).
4. Application Layer
o Function: Provides network services directly to user applications. It
includes all higher-level protocols and interfaces that applications use
to communicate over the network.
o Key Elements: Application services, user interfaces.
o Protocols: HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), DNS (Domain
Name System).

Key Concepts

 Encapsulation: Each layer adds its own header (and sometimes a footer) to
the data as it is passed down the layers. This ensures the data is properly
formatted and can be interpreted correctly at each layer.
 Layer Interaction: Each layer on the source device communicates with its
corresponding layer on the destination device. For example, the Transport
Layer on one device communicates with the Transport Layer on another
device.

How TCP/IP Layers Work Together

When sending data, it flows through the layers as follows:

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1. Application Layer: The user's application generates data (e.g., a web page
request).
2. Transport Layer: The data is segmented, and each segment is given a port
number. If using TCP, it ensures reliable delivery by establishing a
connection and managing error correction.
3. Internet Layer: The segments are encapsulated into packets with IP
addresses added, specifying the source and destination.
4. Network Interface Layer: The packets are encapsulated into frames with
the necessary hardware addresses and are transmitted over the physical
medium (e.g., Ethernet cable, Wi-Fi).

When receiving data, the process is reversed:

1. Network Interface Layer: Frames are received from the physical medium,
and hardware addresses are checked.
2. Internet Layer: The frames are stripped of their hardware addresses, and
packets are extracted. IP addresses are checked to ensure correct delivery.
3. Transport Layer: The packets are reassembled into segments, and any
necessary error correction is performed. Data is directed to the correct
application based on the port number.
4. Application Layer: The data is passed to the user’s application (e.g., web
browser).

Advantages of the TCP/IP Model

 Simplicity: With only four layers, it is easier to understand and implement

compared to the seven-layer OSI model.
 Flexibility: It is adaptable and can work with various types of networks and
devices.
 Interoperability: The TCP/IP protocols are widely adopted and used across
different platforms and devices, ensuring seamless communication.

The TCP/IP model is the foundation of modern internet communications, enabling

reliable and efficient data transfer across diverse networks and devices.

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TYPES OF NETWORKS : LOCAL AREA NETWORKS, METROPOLITAN AREA

NETWORKS, WIDE AREA NETWORK:

Networks can be classified into several types based on their size, geographical
coverage, and the specific purpose they serve. Here are the primary types of
networks:

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1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

 Definition: A small network used for communication among personal

devices.
 Range: Typically within a range of a few meters.
 Examples: Bluetooth connections between a smartphone and a headset, or a
laptop and a wireless mouse.

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

 Definition: A network that connects computers and devices within a limited

geographical area such as a home, school, or office building.
 Range: Up to a few kilometers.
 Examples: Ethernet network in an office, Wi-Fi network in a home.

3. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

 Definition: A type of LAN that uses wireless technology to connect devices.

 Range: Similar to LAN, typically within a few hundred meters.
 Examples: Wi-Fi networks in homes, cafes, and public places.

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Definition: A network that spans a metropolitan area, connecting multiple

LANs.
 Range: Covers a city or a large campus, usually up to 50 kilometers.
 Examples: Citywide wireless networks, university campus networks.

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Definition: A network that covers a broad area, such as a country or

continent, connecting multiple LANs and MANs.
 Range: Can span thousands of kilometers.
 Examples: The internet, large corporate networks connecting offices in
different cities or countries.

6. Storage Area Network (SAN)

 Definition: A specialized network that provides access to consolidated,

block-level data storage.
 Range: Typically used within data centers.

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 Examples: Networks connecting large storage arrays to servers in a data

center.

7. Campus Area Network (CAN)

 Definition: A network that connects multiple LANs within a limited

geographical area, such as a university, military base, or business campus.
 Range: Covers a campus or group of buildings.
 Examples: University network connecting various departments and
libraries.

8. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

 Definition: A technology that creates a secure, encrypted connection over a

less secure network, such as the internet.
 Range: Extends securely over a wide area, often globally.
 Examples: Remote workers connecting to their company’s network securely
over the internet.

9. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

 Definition: A network built and owned by a company to interconnect its

various sites, ensuring secure and efficient communication.
 Range: Can range from a few buildings to global coverage.
 Examples: A corporation’s internal network connecting offices in different
cities.

10. Global Area Network (GAN)

 Definition: A network that connects networks worldwide, typically using

satellite communication.
 Range: Global.
 Examples: The backbone network of the internet, satellite-based
communication networks.

11. Home Area Network (HAN)

 Definition: A residential LAN used to connect devices within a home.

 Range: Covers a single home.
 Examples: Network connecting smart devices, computers, printers, and
entertainment systems in a house.

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12. Internetwork

 Definition: A network of networks, formed by connecting multiple

networks using routers and gateways.
 Range: Can be local, regional, or global.
 Examples: The internet, which connects millions of private, public,
academic, business, and government networks.

These various types of networks cater to different needs and scales, from personal
use to global connectivity, each with its specific technologies and protocols to
ensure effective communication and data transfer.

TOPOLOGIES: BUS, STAR, RING, HYBRID, TREE, COMPLETE, IRREGULAR –

TOPOLOGY:

Network topologies refer to the arrangement of different elements (links, nodes,

etc.) in a computer network. Here's an overview of various network topologies:

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1. Bus Topology

 Description: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central

cable, known as the bus or backbone.
 Advantages:
o Easy to install and extend.
o Requires less cable compared to other topologies.
 Disadvantages:
o If the main cable fails, the entire network goes down.
o Limited cable length and number of stations.
o Performance degrades as more devices are added.
 Use Case: Small networks, such as LANs in small offices or homes.

2. Star Topology

 Description: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or

switch.
 Advantages:
o Easy to install and manage.
o If one cable fails, only the connected device is affected, not the entire
network.
o Easy to detect faults and troubleshoot.
 Disadvantages:
o Requires more cable than bus topology.
o If the central hub fails, the entire network goes down.
 Use Case: Commonly used in home and office networks.

3. Ring Topology

 Description: In a ring topology, each device is connected to two other

devices, forming a circular data path.
 Advantages:
o Data packets travel at high speed.
o Each device has equal access to the network.
 Disadvantages:
o A failure in any cable or device disrupts the entire network.
o Difficult to troubleshoot and expand.
 Use Case: Used in some campus networks and older LAN technologies.

4. Hybrid Topology

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 Description: A combination of two or more different types of topologies.

For example, a hybrid topology might integrate star and bus topologies.
 Advantages:
o Flexible and scalable.
o Can be designed to meet specific needs.
 Disadvantages:
o Complex to design and manage.
o Expensive due to the complexity and need for more cabling.
 Use Case: Large enterprises with diverse network requirements.

5. Tree Topology

 Description: A tree topology is a hierarchical topology that combines

characteristics of star and bus topologies. It has a root node connected to one
or more nodes, which in turn connect to other nodes in a hierarchy.
 Advantages:
o Scalable and easy to manage.
o Fault isolation is easier.
 Disadvantages:
o Requires more cabling than star and bus topologies.
o If the root node fails, the entire network can be affected.
 Use Case: Used in large networks, like university campuses and corporate
networks.

6. Complete Topology (Fully Connected)

 Description: In a complete topology, each device is connected directly to

every other device in the network.
 Advantages:
o High reliability and redundancy.
o Excellent performance as there is a direct connection between devices.
 Disadvantages:
o Extremely high cost due to the number of connections required.
o Complex cabling and difficult to manage.
 Use Case: Rarely used due to cost and complexity, but can be found in
small networks requiring high reliability.

7. Irregular Topology

 Description: An irregular topology does not follow a standard layout and is

often a mix of different topologies or an ad hoc arrangement.
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 Advantages:
o Flexible and can be tailored to specific needs.
o Can use existing cabling and infrastructure.
 Disadvantages:
o Can be inefficient and difficult to manage.
o Troubleshooting can be challenging due to lack of a clear structure.
 Use Case: Networks that have grown organically without a predefined
structure, such as some campus or building networks.

Each topology has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of topology
depends on factors like the size of the network, budget, required performance, and
the need for reliability and fault tolerance.

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ADDRESSING:

Addressing in networking refers to the process of assigning unique identifiers to

devices and network interfaces to facilitate communication. There are several types
of addressing, each serving different purposes and operating at different layers of
the network model. Here are key concepts and types of addressing:

Types of Addressing

1. Physical (MAC) Addressing

o Description: A Media Access Control (MAC) address is a unique
identifier assigned to a network interface card (NIC) by the
manufacturer.
o Format: Typically a 48-bit address represented in hexadecimal
format (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
o Function: Operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI
model. Used for local network communication and ensuring that data
frames are delivered to the correct hardware.
o Example: An Ethernet NIC with a MAC address of
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E.

2. Logical (IP) Addressing

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o Description: An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a logical address

used to identify devices on a network.
o Versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
 IPv4: 32-bit address written in dotted decimal format (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).
 IPv6: 128-bit address written in hexadecimal format separated
by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
o Function: Operates at the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
Used for routing data across networks and ensuring that packets reach
the correct destination.
o Example: A computer with an IPv4 address of 192.168.1.10 or an
IPv6 address of 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.

3. Port Addressing
o Description: Ports are used to identify specific processes or services
running on a device. They allow multiple services to run on a single
IP address.
o Format: 16-bit number ranging from 0 to 65535.
 Well-Known Ports: 0-1023 (e.g., HTTP uses port 80, HTTPS
uses port 443).
 Registered Ports: 1024-49151 (e.g., Microsoft SQL Server
uses port 1433).
 Dynamic/Private Ports: 49152-65535 (used for temporary or
private purposes).
o Function: Operates at the Transport Layer (Layer 4) of the OSI
model. Used for directing packets to the correct application on a
device.
o Example: A web server running on IP address 192.168.1.10 using
port 80.

4. Domain Name System (DNS) Addressing

o Description: DNS translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,
www.example.com) into IP addresses.
o Function: Operates at the Application Layer (Layer 7) of the OSI
model. Provides an easy-to-remember naming system for internet
resources.
o Example: www.example.com translating to IP address 93.184.216.34.

Addressing in IPv4 and IPv6

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IPv4 Addressing

 Classes:
o Class A: 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 (large networks, up to 16 million
hosts)
o Class B: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 (medium-sized networks, up to
65,000 hosts)
o Class C: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 (small networks, up to 254
hosts)
o Class D: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 (multicast)
o Class E: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 (reserved for future use)

 Private Addresses: Not routable on the internet. Used within private

networks.
o Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
o Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
o Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

 Subnetting: Divides a larger network into smaller subnetworks. Uses subnet

masks (e.g., 255.255.255.0) to define network and host portions of an
address.

IPv6 Addressing

 Advantages: Larger address space, better security features, simplified

header format, and improved support for mobile devices.
 Address Types:
o Unicast: One-to-one communication (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334)
o Multicast: One-to-many communication (e.g., FF00::/8)
o Anycast: One-to-nearest communication, typically used in routing.

Key Concepts

 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): Resolves IP addresses to MAC

addresses on a local network.
 Subnetting: Divides an IP network into smaller sub-networks to improve
management and performance.
 CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing): Allows for more flexible
allocation of IP addresses than traditional class-based addressing.

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Represented as an IP address followed by a slash and the prefix length (e.g.,

192.168.1.0/24).

Conclusion

Addressing is a fundamental aspect of network communication, enabling devices

to be uniquely identified and allowing data to be routed correctly through various
network layers. Understanding the different types of addressing and their roles is
crucial for designing, managing, and troubleshooting networks effectively.

PHYSICAL LAYER – ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNAL PROPERTIES:

Analog and digital signals are two fundamental types of signals used in
communication systems. They have distinct properties and uses. Here is a detailed
comparison of their properties:

Analog Signals

Properties

1. Continuous Signal:
o Analog signals are continuous in both time and amplitude.
o They vary smoothly and can take any value within a given range.

2. Waveform:
o Represented by sine waves.
o Can be characterized by amplitude, frequency, and phase.

3. Amplitude:
o The height of the signal wave, representing the signal's strength.
o Measured in volts (V) for electrical signals.

4. Frequency:
o The number of cycles per second of the wave.
o Measured in Hertz (Hz).

5. Phase:
o The position of the wave relative to time zero.
o Measured in degrees or radians.

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6. Bandwidth:
o Analog signals typically require more bandwidth compared to digital
signals.
o Bandwidth is the range of frequencies the signal occupies.

7. Noise Sensitivity:
o Analog signals are more susceptible to noise and interference.
o Noise can cause degradation of the signal quality.

8. Examples:
o Audio signals (sound waves), radio signals, and analog video signals.

Digital Signals

Properties

1. Discrete Signal:
o Digital signals are discrete in both time and amplitude.
o They represent data using binary values (0s and 1s).

2. Waveform:
o Represented by square waves or pulses.
o Each pulse corresponds to a binary digit.

3. Amplitude:
o Digital signals have discrete amplitude levels, typically two levels:
low (0) and high (1).

4. Frequency:
o The rate at which the signal changes state.
o Often referred to in terms of bit rate (bits per second, bps).

5. Phase:
o Phase shifts can be used to represent different binary values or signal
changes.

6. Bandwidth:
o Digital signals can often be transmitted with less bandwidth compared
to analog signals, due to efficient encoding techniques.

7. Noise Immunity:

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o Digital signals are more immune to noise and interference.

o Error detection and correction techniques can be used to maintain
signal integrity.

8. Examples:
o Computer data, digital audio, and digital video signals.

Comparison of Analog and Digital Signals

1. Representation:
o Analog: Continuous waveform.
o Digital: Discrete binary values.

2. Noise Sensitivity:
o Analog: High sensitivity to noise, leading to signal degradation.
o Digital: Low sensitivity to noise, with robust error correction
mechanisms.

3. Signal Processing:
o Analog: Requires analog processing equipment, such as amplifiers
and filters.
o Digital: Uses digital processing techniques, including microprocessors
and digital signal processors (DSPs).

4. Transmission Quality:
o Analog: Quality degrades with distance and interference.
o Digital: Maintains quality over longer distances with proper error
handling.

5. Storage and Reproduction:

o Analog: Quality can degrade over time and with multiple copies.
o Digital: Quality remains consistent regardless of the number of copies.

6. Applications:
o Analog: Traditional telephony, broadcast radio, and TV.
o Digital: Modern telecommunications, internet, digital media (CDs,
DVDs), and computing.

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SINEWAVE:

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A sine wave is a fundamental waveform in both mathematics and signal

processing. It represents a smooth, periodic oscillation. Here are the key aspects of
a sine wave:

Properties of a Sine Wave

1. Mathematical Representation:
o The sine wave can be described by the function: y(t)=Asin⁡(2πft+ϕ)y(t)
= A \sin(2\pi ft + \phi)y(t)=Asin(2πft+ϕ) where:
 y(t)y(t)y(t) is the value of the wave at time ttt.
 AAA is the amplitude (the peak value of the wave).
 fff is the frequency (the number of cycles per second).
 ϕ\phiϕ is the phase (the horizontal shift of the wave).
 ttt is time.
2. Amplitude (A):
o The maximum height of the wave from the centerline (equilibrium
point).
o Determines the signal's strength.
3. Frequency (f):
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oThe number of complete cycles of the wave that occur per second.
o Measured in Hertz (Hz).
o Determines the pitch of the sound in audio signals or the rate of
oscillation in other contexts.
4. Phase (φ):
o The horizontal shift of the wave.
o Measured in degrees (°) or radians (rad).
o A phase shift changes the starting point of the wave.
5. Wavelength (λ):
o The distance between successive crests (or troughs) of the wave.
o Inversely proportional to the frequency.

Characteristics of a Sine Wave

1. Periodic:
o A sine wave repeats itself at regular intervals, called the period (T).
o The period TTT is the reciprocal of the frequency: T=1fT = \frac{1}
{f}T=f1.
2. Smooth and Continuous:
o The sine wave is infinitely smooth and continuous, with no abrupt
changes.
3. Symmetry:
o Sine waves are symmetric about the horizontal axis.
4. Pure Tone:
o In audio, a sine wave corresponds to a pure tone without harmonics.

Applications of Sine Waves

1. Signal Processing:
o Sine waves are used as basic building blocks in signal processing.
o Any complex waveform can be decomposed into a series of sine
waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases (Fourier
Series).
2. Communications:
o Used in modulation techniques, such as Amplitude Modulation (AM)
and Frequency Modulation (FM).
3. Electrical Engineering:
o Describes alternating current (AC) in power systems.
o Fundamental to the analysis of AC circuits.
4. Sound and Music:

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Sine waves represent pure musical tones.

o
o Used in synthesizers and audio equipment testing.
5. Mathematics and Physics:
o Solutions to differential equations in various physical systems, such as
oscillating springs and pendulums.
o Describes wave phenomena, including sound waves, light waves, and
water waves.

PHASE, WAVELENGTH:

PHASE and WAVELENGTH are terms commonly used in the context of waves,
particularly in physics and engineering.

Phase

 Definition: Phase refers to the position of a point in time (an instant) on a

waveform cycle. It is measured in degrees (°) or radians (rad).
 Description: For a periodic wave, the phase specifies the relative position
within the cycle. For example, a sine wave at the start of its cycle has a
phase of 0°, at its peak it has a phase of 90°, at the zero crossing downward
it is at 180°, and at the trough it is at 270°, returning to 0° at the end of the
cycle.
 Applications: Phase is crucial in many applications including signal
processing, communications, and acoustics, where the synchronization of
waves is important.

Wavelength

 Definition: Wavelength is the distance between consecutive points of the

same phase on a wave, such as from crest to crest or trough to trough. It is
typically denoted by the Greek letter lambda (λ).
 Description: Wavelength is a spatial period of the wave—the distance over
which the wave's shape repeats. It is inversely proportional to frequency (the
number of cycles per unit time). The relationship is given by the formula
λ=vf\lambda = \frac{v}{f}λ=fv, where λ\lambdaλ is the wavelength, vvv is
the phase velocity of the wave, and fff is the frequency.
 Applications: Wavelength is an important concept in various fields such as
optics, radio waves, acoustics, and other areas dealing with wave
phenomena.

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Example

 Light Wave: For visible light, different wavelengths correspond to different

colors. For example, red light has a longer wavelength (~700 nm) compared
to blue light (~450 nm).
 Sound Wave: In acoustics, the wavelength of sound waves in the air is
related to the pitch of the sound; lower pitches have longer wavelengths.

Understanding these concepts is essential for working with any kind of wave-based
technology or study, including radio transmissions, optics, and acoustics

BIT RATE:

Bit Rate refers to the number of bits transmitted or processed per unit of time in a
digital communication system. It is a measure of the data transmission speed and is
usually expressed in bits per second (bps).

Detailed Explanation

 Definition: Bit rate is the number of bits that are conveyed or processed per
second in a digital network or in any digital communication system. Higher
bit rates generally indicate faster data transmission and higher quality of
digital media.
 Formula: The bit rate RRR can be calculated using the formula:

R=Number of bits/Time in seconds

 Units:
o Bits per second (bps)
3
o Kilobits per second (Kbps or kbps): 1 Kbps=10 bps
6
o Megabits per second (Mbps or mbps): 1 Mbps=10 bps
9
o Gigabits per second (Gbps or gbps): 1 Gbps=10 bps
 Applications:
o Internet Connections: The bit rate is often used to describe the speed
of internet connections. For example, a broadband connection might
offer speeds of 100 Mbps.

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o Digital Audio: In digital audio, the bit rate indicates the quality of the
audio file. Higher bit rates typically mean better sound quality. For
example, an MP3 file might have a bit rate of 128 kbps or 320 kbps.
o Video Streaming: The quality of streaming video is also affected by
bit rate. Higher bit rates can provide better image quality and
smoother playback. For example, high-definition (HD) video might
stream at bit rates ranging from 5 Mbps to 10 Mbps, while 4K video
might require 20 Mbps or more.
o Data Transfer: In digital communications, the bit rate is critical for
understanding how quickly data can be transferred from one device to
another. For example, USB 2.0 supports transfer rates up to 480
Mbps, while USB 3.0 supports up to 5 Gbps.

Importance

Bit rate is a crucial factor in determining the quality and efficiency of digital
communication systems. It directly impacts the speed of data transmission, the
quality of digital media, and the overall performance of communication networks.
Higher bit rates usually mean better quality and faster transmission, but they also
require more bandwidth and storage.

Understanding bit rate is essential for fields such as telecommunications,

networking, broadcasting, and any area that involves digital data processing and
transmission.

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT:

Transmission impairment refers to the degradation of signal quality during

transmission over a communication medium. Various factors can cause
transmission impairments, leading to errors, signal loss, or reduced performance in
communication systems.

Types of Transmission Impairments

1. Attenuation
o Definition: Attenuation is the reduction in signal strength as it travels
through a medium.
o Causes: Distance, medium properties (like resistance in cables), and
frequency-dependent loss.

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o Effect: Weaker signals, requiring amplification or repeaters to restore

the signal.
2. Distortion
o Definition: Distortion occurs when the signal changes its shape or
form.
o Causes: Different frequencies travel at different speeds (known as
dispersion) or non-linearities in the transmission medium.
o Effect: Altered signal waveforms, causing data errors or
misinterpretation.
3. Noise
o Definition: Noise is any unwanted signal that interferes with the
original signal.
o Types:
 Thermal Noise: Caused by the random motion of electrons in a
conductor.
 Intermodulation Noise: Generated when signals of different
frequencies share the same medium.
 Crosstalk: When a signal transmitted on one circuit or channel
creates an undesired effect on another circuit or channel.
 Impulse Noise: Sudden bursts of interference, often caused by
external electromagnetic disturbances.
o Effect: Corrupts the transmitted data, leading to errors.
4. Echo
o Definition: Echo is a reflected copy of the signal that arrives at the
receiver with some delay.
o Causes: Imperfect impedance matching or reflections from
discontinuities in the transmission path.
o Effect: Confusion between the original and reflected signals,
impacting clarity and accuracy.
5. Latency
o Definition: Latency is the delay between the transmission and
reception of a signal.
o Causes: Signal processing, propagation delays, and queuing in
network devices.
o Effect: Delays in communication, impacting real-time applications
like voice and video calls.
6. Jitter
o Definition: Jitter is the variation in packet arrival times in a network.
o Causes: Network congestion, timing drift, and route changes.

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o Effect: Inconsistent data flow, impacting streaming and real-time

communication.

Impact and Mitigation

 Impact on Communication Systems: Transmission impairments can

significantly affect the performance and reliability of communication
systems, leading to data errors, reduced speed, and overall poor quality of
service.
 Mitigation Techniques:
o Error Detection and Correction: Using techniques like checksums,
parity bits, and more sophisticated error-correcting codes (ECC) to
identify and correct errors.
o Signal Amplification: Boosting the signal strength to combat
attenuation, using amplifiers and repeaters.
o Shielding and Grounding: Reducing noise through proper shielding
of cables and grounding techniques.
o Equalization: Compensating for distortion using equalizers that
adjust the frequency response of the signal.
o Improved Transmission Media: Using higher quality cables, fiber
optics, or advanced wireless technologies to reduce impairments.

PERFORMANCE MEASURES: BANDWIDTH, THROUGHPUT, LATENCY, JITTER:

Performance measures are critical for evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of
communication networks and systems. Here are the key performance measures:
bandwidth, throughput, latency, and jitter.

Bandwidth

 Definition: Bandwidth is the maximum rate at which data can be transferred

over a network connection or communication channel.
 Measurement: Typically measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per
second (Kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps).
 Implications: Higher bandwidth means more data can be transmitted in a
given amount of time, allowing for faster data transfer rates and the ability to
support more simultaneous connections.

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 Example: A fiber optic connection might have a bandwidth of 1 Gbps,

allowing for high-speed internet access and large data transfers.

Throughput

 Definition: Throughput is the actual rate at which data is successfully

transmitted over a network.
 Measurement: Measured in bits per second (bps), similar to bandwidth, but
it represents the real data transfer rate rather than the maximum possible
rate.
 Factors Affecting Throughput: Network congestion, transmission
impairments, protocol overhead, and hardware limitations.
 Example: Even if a network has a bandwidth of 100 Mbps, the actual
throughput might be lower (e.g., 80 Mbps) due to network congestion or
other factors.

Latency

 Definition: Latency is the time it takes for a data packet to travel from the
source to the destination.
 Measurement: Measured in milliseconds (ms).
 Components:
o Propagation Delay: The time it takes for the signal to travel through
the medium.
o Transmission Delay: The time it takes to push the packet's bits onto
the wire.
o Processing Delay: The time taken by network devices (routers,
switches) to process the packet.
o Queuing Delay: The time a packet spends in routing queues.
 Example: Low latency is crucial for real-time applications like online
gaming, VoIP, and video conferencing. A typical acceptable latency for
these applications is less than 100 ms.

Jitter

 Definition: Jitter is the variation in the time between packets arriving,

caused by network congestion, timing drift, or route changes.
 Measurement: Typically measured in milliseconds (ms).
 Impact: High jitter can cause packets to arrive out of order, leading to poor
quality in real-time communications like VoIP or streaming video.

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 Example: In a VoIP call, high jitter can result in choppy audio or video. A
network might have an average latency of 50 ms but a jitter of 30 ms,
causing significant variability in packet arrival times.

Relationship and Importance

 Bandwidth vs. Throughput: Bandwidth is the potential capacity, while

throughput is the actual data rate achieved. Throughput is often less than
bandwidth due to various network inefficiencies.
 Latency and Jitter: Both are critical for the quality of real-time
applications. Low latency ensures quick response times, while low jitter
ensures consistent and smooth data delivery.
 Optimization: Network performance optimization often involves increasing
bandwidth, improving throughput, reducing latency, and minimizing jitter to
meet the specific needs of different applications and services.

Understanding these performance measures helps in designing, managing, and

troubleshooting communication networks to ensure they meet the required
performance standards for various applications.

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GUIDED AND UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA:

Transmission media can be broadly categorized into guided and unguided media,
depending on whether the signal is directed along a specific path or not.

Guided Transmission Media

Guided media, also known as wired or bounded media, use physical paths to guide
the transmission of signals. These media provide a specific path for the signal to
travel, reducing interference and enhancing security.

1. Twisted Pair Cable

o Structure: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together.
o Types:

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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Commonly used in Ethernet

networks and telephone systems. Less protection against
interference but cheaper.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has an additional shielding to
reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI). Used in
environments with high EMI.
o Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to install and maintain.
o Disadvantages: Limited bandwidth and shorter distance compared to
other guided media.
o Applications: Local Area Networks (LANs), telephone networks.
2. Coaxial Cable
o Structure: Consists of a central conductor, insulating layer, metallic
shield, and outer insulating layer.
o Advantages: Higher bandwidth and better shielding against
interference than twisted pair cables.
o Disadvantages: Bulkier and more expensive than twisted pair cables.
o Applications: Cable television, broadband internet, and some LANs.
3. Fiber Optic Cable
o Structure: Uses thin strands of glass or plastic fibers to transmit data
as light signals.
o Types:
 Single-mode Fiber (SMF): Carries a single light wave,
allowing for higher bandwidth and longer distances.
 Multi-mode Fiber (MMF): Carries multiple light waves,
suitable for shorter distances.
o Advantages: Extremely high bandwidth, long-distance transmission,
immunity to electromagnetic interference.
o Disadvantages: Expensive and more difficult to install and maintain.
o Applications: Long-distance telecommunications, high-speed
internet, medical imaging, and military applications.

Unguided Transmission Media

Unguided media, also known as wireless or unbounded media, transmit data

without using physical paths. The signal propagates through the air or space,
allowing for greater mobility and flexibility.

1. Radio Waves
o Characteristics: Low-frequency electromagnetic waves.

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o Advantages: Long-range, can penetrate buildings, and are suitable for

omnidirectional broadcasting.
o Disadvantages: Susceptible to interference and eavesdropping.
o Applications: AM/FM radio, television broadcasts, and some wireless
communication systems.
2. Microwaves
o Characteristics: Higher frequency than radio waves, require line-of-
sight transmission.
o Advantages: High bandwidth, suitable for point-to-point
communication.
o Disadvantages: Requires unobstructed paths, susceptible to weather
conditions.
o Applications: Satellite communication, cellular networks, and Wi-Fi.
3. Infrared Waves
o Characteristics: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies just below
visible light.
o Advantages: High data rate over short distances, secure transmission
(line-of-sight requirement).
o Disadvantages: Limited to short-range, cannot penetrate walls or
obstructions.
o Applications: Remote controls, short-range communication between
devices (e.g., wireless keyboards, mice).
4. Visible Light Communication (VLC)
o Characteristics: Uses visible light spectrum for data transmission.
o Advantages: High bandwidth, immune to electromagnetic
interference.
o Disadvantages: Line-of-sight requirement, affected by ambient light.
o Applications: Li-Fi (Light Fidelity), underwater communication, and
certain indoor positioning systems.

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CIRCUIT SWITCHING:

Circuit switching is a method of communication where a dedicated communication

path or circuit is established between two endpoints for the duration of the
transmission. This technique is typically used in traditional telephone networks but
has been largely replaced by more modern methods in data communications.

Key Concepts

1. Dedicated Path: A single, continuous communication path is established

and maintained throughout the call. This path remains reserved and
exclusive for the call's duration.
2. Connection-Oriented: Circuit switching is connection-oriented, meaning
that a connection must be established before any data can be transferred and
remains in place until the session ends.
3. Stages of Circuit Switching:
o Establishment: The connection is set up between the sender and
receiver. This involves signaling to establish the path through various
network nodes.
o Data Transfer: Once the circuit is established, data is transmitted.
The circuit remains dedicated to this communication until the session
ends.
o Termination: The circuit is released after the communication session
ends, freeing resources for other users.

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Types of Circuit Switching

1. Space-Division Switching: Uses physical paths like wires or fiber optics to

establish a circuit. Each circuit occupies a specific path.
2. Time-Division Switching: Utilizes time slots in a shared medium. Multiple
circuits share the same physical path but use it at different times.

Advantages

1. Dedicated Bandwidth: Guaranteed bandwidth for the duration of the

connection, ensuring consistent quality of service (QoS).
2. Low Latency: Minimal delay once the circuit is established, as there is a
direct path between the sender and receiver.
3. Predictability: Performance is predictable because the path and resources
are reserved exclusively for the communication session.

Disadvantages

1. Inefficiency: Resources are reserved even if no data is being transmitted,

leading to potential underutilization of network capacity.
2. Scalability: Less efficient for bursty or sporadic data traffic, as establishing
and maintaining circuits for numerous short sessions can be resource-
intensive.
3. Setup Time: Time required to establish and terminate the circuit can add
overhead, especially for short communications.

Applications

1. Traditional Telephony: The public switched telephone network (PSTN)

uses circuit switching to provide reliable voice communication.
2. Private Networks: Some legacy private networks still use circuit switching
for internal communication.

Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching

 Circuit Switching:
o Dedicated path for the duration of the connection.
o Suitable for continuous, steady data streams (e.g., voice calls).
o Less efficient for intermittent data transfer.

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 Packet Switching:
o Data is broken into packets and transmitted over shared networks.
o Packets can take different paths to reach the destination.
o More efficient and scalable, especially for bursty data traffic.
o Used in modern networks such as the Internet.

PACKET SWITCHING:

Packet switching is a method of data transmission where messages are divided into
smaller units called packets, which are then transmitted independently over a
network. This technique is fundamental to modern data communication systems,
including the Internet.

Key Concepts

1. Packetization: Data is divided into smaller packets, each containing a

portion of the message, along with metadata such as source and destination
addresses, error-checking information, and sequencing data.
2. Independent Transmission: Packets travel independently through the
network and may take different routes to reach the destination. They are
reassembled in the correct order upon arrival.
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3. Store and Forward: Intermediate network nodes (routers and switches)

temporarily store packets before forwarding them to the next node. This
allows for dynamic routing based on current network conditions.

Types of Packet Switching

1. Datagram Packet Switching:

o Each packet is treated independently, with no established path.
o Packets may take different routes and arrive out of order.
o Used in connectionless protocols like the Internet Protocol (IP).
2. Virtual Circuit Packet Switching:
o A logical path is established before transmission, though not reserved
exclusively.
o Packets follow this predefined path and usually arrive in order.
o Used in connection-oriented protocols like Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP).

Advantages

1. Efficiency: Network resources are used more efficiently as packets are only
sent when there is data to transmit, and multiple packets can share the same
network paths.
2. Scalability: Suitable for large and complex networks. Can handle large
volumes of traffic and adapt to changing network conditions.
3. Robustness: The network can reroute packets around congestion or failures,
making it resilient to individual link or node failures.
4. Flexibility: Supports various types of data (voice, video, text) and can adjust
to different traffic patterns.

Disadvantages

1. Latency and Jitter: Variable delays due to the independent routing of

packets can affect real-time applications like voice and video calls.
2. Complexity: Requires sophisticated protocols and algorithms for routing,
error checking, and reassembly.
3. Overhead: Each packet carries additional control information, which can
reduce the effective data throughput.

Applications

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1. Internet: The most prominent example of a packet-switched network, using

protocols like IP, TCP, and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
2. Local Area Networks (LANs): Ethernet, the dominant LAN technology,
uses packet switching.
3. Wide Area Networks (WANs): Technologies like Frame Relay, ATM, and
MPLS use packet switching principles.

Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching

 Packet Switching:
o Data is divided into packets and transmitted independently.
o More efficient for bursty data traffic.
o Greater resilience and flexibility.
o Variable latency and potential jitter.
 Circuit Switching:
o Dedicated path for the duration of the connection.
o Consistent quality of service and low latency.
o Less efficient for intermittent data.
o Fixed resources reserved even during inactivity.

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