DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A DRONE

UG Project Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for The Degree of
Bachelor of Technology ( Aerospace Engineering ) By
Mamidipalli Lakshmi Narasimha (Enrollment No. 2022AMB045)
Sankuru Sandeep (Enrollment No. 2022AMB028)
Pedapudi Yaswanth (Enrollment No. 2022AMB004)

Under the guidance of

Dr. Lwarence Prince Raj Dr. Joydeep Bhowmick

Professor Professor

Department of Aerospace Engineering and Department of Aerospace Engineering

Applied Mechanics and Applied Mechanics

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY
SHIBPUR
HOWRAH, WEST BENGAL-711103
SEPTEMBER 2024

DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING AND

APPLIED MECHANICS
 DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING AND APPLIED MECHANICS
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SHIBPUR
HOWRAH - 711103, INDIA

FORWARD
We hereby forward this project report on “Design and Development of a Drone” successfully
done under our guidance and supervision for the partial fulfilment of the requirements for
B. Tech under the Department of Aerospace Engineering and Applied Mechanics at Indian
Institute of Engineering Science and
Technology, Shibpur.

The report is hereby forwarded. Dr. Lawrence Price Raj

&

Dr. joydeep Bhowmik

Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

and Applied Mechanics,
IIEST Shibpur

Countersigned by:
Dr. Nithya Nanda Nandi
Professor and Head,AE&AM
DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING AND APPLIED MECHANICS
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SHIBPUR
HOWRAH - 711103, INDIA

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

The foregoing progress report is hereby approved as a creditable study of Engineering subject
carried out and presented in a satisfactory manner to warrant its acceptance as a prerequisite
for the Degree of ‘Bachelor of Technology’ in Aerospace Engineering and Applied Mechanics,
Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur for which it has been
submitted. It is understood that by this approval the undersigned do not necessarily endorse or
approve any statement made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn therein but approve the
thesis only for the purpose for which it is submitted.

Board of Thesis Examiners:

DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING AND APPLIED MECHANICS
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SHIBPUR
HOWRAH - 711103, INDIA

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We take the opportunity to express our sincere gratitude and indebtedness to our project
supervisors, Dr. Lawrence Price Raj & Dr. joydeep Bhowmik , Department of Aerospace
Engineering and Applied Mechanics of Indian Institute of Engineering Science and
Technology, Shibpur, Howrah-711103, for their resourceful guidance, constant encouragement
and enlightening discussions during this project work without which it would not have been
possible for us to achieve this performance. We earnestly would like to thank our parents for
making our thesis work possible and for their continuous support. We express our heartfelt
thanks to all our friends for the cooperation and support they have extended to us from time to
time. We are honestly thankful to all other faculty members and staff of the Aerospace
Engineering and Applied Mechanics Department, IIESTS for their sincere, spontaneous, and
act of cooperation during this research study.

Date:

Mamidipalli Lakshmi Narasimha (Enrollment No. 2022AMB045)

Sankuru Sandeep (Enrollment No. 2022AMB028)
Pedapudi Yaswanth (Enrollment No. 2022AMB004)
INDEX

FORWARD
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
1.1 Drones
1.2 Drone Power Sources
CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Literature Review
CHAPTER3 –CREATING FRAME MODEL IN SOLIDWORKS
3.1 Frame model in SolidWorks
CHAPTER 4 – DESIGN AND ASSEMBLY
4.1 Approach
4.2 Components Selection for Drone Assembly
4.3 Drone Assembly
CHAPTER 5 – PERFORMANCE AND TEST RESULTS
5.1 Methods of control
5.2 Test Results

CHAPTER 6 – APPLICATIONS AND FUTURE OPTIONS

6.1 Applications of the Drone
6.2 Future Options and Enhancements

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 ABSTRACT
The current project aims to investigate the working principles of drone components and builds
a drone by assembling and purchasing appropriate components. It also entails researching and
developing various drone control technologies that are feasible. Additionally, it entails
researching the basic science underlying solar panels and adding a solar charging mechanism
to the drone's power source in order to extend its lifespan through the use of appropriate solar
panels. A thorough examination of the literature was done in order to find similar studies,
evaluate the findings, and gather important ideas. In addition, a thorough market research was
conducted to ascertain the accessibility of necessary parts needed to build the drone, leading to
the creation of an ideal list. This work also includes the test flight of drone and comparison of
flight time with the theoretical calculations. Based on the difficulties encountered in this work
and the experimental findings, some recommendations have been made.
 CHAPTER – 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Drones:
Drones or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are aircrafts that doesn't have a human pilot
aboard. Drones can be operated remotely by a person, or they can take off on their own using
GPS and inbuilt sensors, preprogrammed instructions, or both. Advancements in development
methods, maneuverability and control capabilities, and energy-storing technologies have made
it possible to create a variety of drones that can be used in situations where it may be difficult
or hazardous for people to be present, like military operations, humanitarian search and rescue
missions, and agricultural uses.

1.1.1 Classification of Drones:

There exists a variety of classification parameters for identifying the type of drones. Not every
method of classification considers all the parameters, like weight, flight endurance, wingspan,
purpose, etc., that might be excluded by some other method. Below are some commonly
followed classifications.

Size:

 Micro Drones: Typically, small and lightweight, often used for recreational purposes or
indoor flights.
 Mini Drones: Slightly larger than micro drones, with enhanced features and capabilities.
 Small Drones: Intermediate in size, commonly used for both recreational and professional
applications.
 Medium and Large Drones: Generally employed for industrial, commercial, or military
purposes, with larger payload capacities and longer flight times.

Purpose:

 Recreational Drones: Designed for hobbyists and enthusiasts for activities like aerial
photography, racing, and exploration.
 Commercial Drones: Used for various applications such as agriculture, surveillance,
mapping, and infrastructure inspection.
 Military Drones: Employed for reconnaissance, surveillance, and intelligence gathering.

Capabilities:

 Camera Drones: Equipped with high-quality cameras for photography and videography. 
Delivery Drones: Designed for transporting goods and packages over short distances.
 Surveying and Mapping Drones: Specialized for aerial surveying, mapping, and geospatial
applications.
 Search and Rescue Drones: Equipped with features like thermal imaging and payload
delivery for emergency response.

Autonomy:

 Manual Drones: Operated directly by human pilots.

 Semi-Autonomous Drones: Capable of performing certain tasks autonomously but still
require human intervention.
 Autonomous Drones: Have advanced artificial intelligence and navigation systems, capable
of completing missions without continuous human control.

Range and Endurance:

 Short-Range Drones: Limited to relatively short distances and flight times.

 Medium-Range Drones: Capable of covering larger distances and staying airborne for
extended periods.
 Long-Range Drones: Designed for missions that require extended ranges and endurance.

These classifications provide a broad understanding of the diverse range of drones available
today, each serving specific purposes across various industries and sectors.

1.1.3 Working Principle of a Quadcopter:

For this project, a multirotor drone with 4 rotors (or a Quadcopter) is considered for design
and development purpose and hence both are used interchangeably form hereon. The working
principle of a quadcopter involves four rotors arranged in a symmetric configuration. These
rotors generate lift and allow the quadcopter to hover, maneuver, and fly in various directions.

1. A quadcopter has four propellers at four corners of the frame.

2. For each propeller, speed and direction of rotation are independently controlled for balance
and movement of the drone.
3. In a traditional quadrotor, all four rotors are placed at an equal distance from each other.
4. To maintain the balance of the system, one pair of rotors rotates in a clockwise direction and
the other pair rotates in an anti-clockwise direction.
5. To move up (hover) all rotors should run at high speed. By changing the speed of rotors, the
drone can be moved forward, backward and side to side.
Quadcopter Dynamics:
 Figure 1. Yaw Pitch and Roll rotations of a Quadcopter [1]

Throttle/Hover:

• Throttle controls the up and down movement of the drone.

• If all four propellers run at normal speed, the drone will descend.
• If all four propellers run at a higher speed, the drone will ascend, known as hovering.

Pitch:

• Pitch refers to the movement of the drone about a lateral axis, either forward or
backward.
• If the two rear propellers run at high speed, the drone moves forward.
• If the two front propellers run at high speed, the drone moves backward.

Roll:

• Roll refers to the movement of the drone about the longitudinal axis.
• If the two right propellers run at high speed, the drone moves to the left. • If the two left
propellers run at high speed, the drone moves to the right.
Yaw:

• Yaw is the rotation of the drone's head about the vertical axis, either left or right.
• If two propellers on the right diagonal run at high speed, the drone rotates counter
clockwise.
• If two propellers on the left diagonal run at high speed, the drone rotates clockwise.

1.1.4 Key components and their functions:

Frame: The frame serves as the structure that holds all the components together and provides
stability to the quadcopter. Because of this, the drone's frame is crucial for achieving stability
and centre of mass stabilization. The more symmetrical the frame is, the easier it is for the
drone to hover and control in mid-air and take off. The design must simultaneously minimize
weight while avoiding excessive flexing under load, which is the reason why there are holes
present in the base plates and wings of drone frame in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Drone Frame

Motors: Quadcopters have four motors, with one motor attached to each rotor. These motors
provide the necessary thrust to lift the quadcopter off the ground and maintain its flight. Two
motors on one side rotate in the same direction and the other two in the opposite direction
means if two motors are rotating in the clockwise direction then the other two must rotate in
the anti-clockwise direction so that the moments or torques that are caused by the previous
motors is cancelled by the other two motors.

Figure 3. BLDC Motor

Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs): Each motor is connected to an ESC, which regulates
the speed and power sent to the motor. The flight controller sends signals to the ESCs to control
the rotation speed of the motors, allowing for precise movement and stability.
 Figure 4. Electronic Speed Controller

Flight Controller: The flight controller is the brain of the quadcopter. It receives input from
various sensors, such as gyroscopes and accelerometers, to measure the quadcopter's
orientation, speed, and position. Based on this information, the flight controller adjusts the
speeds of individual motors to maintain stability and control the quadcopter's movement.

Figure 5. Controllers used for drones – ArduPilot Mega(left), Arduino UNO(right)

Battery: The battery provides the necessary power to the motors, ESCs, and flight controller.
Generally, Lithium-ion (Li-ion) or Lithium Polymer (LiPo) batteries are used. Both Li-ion and
LiPo batteries have their advantages and disadvantages. Typically, the Li-ion battery offers high
power and energy density whereas the LiPo battery is flexible in nature and offers more safety
because it lowers the chance of the leakage of electrolytes through the battery which might
cause of explosion. As a result, LiPo batteries are currently being used to power more than 90%
of small UAVs.
 Figure 6. LiPo battery

Propellers: Each motor is connected to a propeller, and the rotation of the propellers generates
lift. The combination of the four propellers’ forces allows the quadcopter to hover and move in
different directions by changing the speeds of the individual motors. We use 2 pairs of
propellers one of anticlockwise and other clockwise to maintain equilibrium of moment and
torques in the drone.

Figure 7. Propellers

Transmitter and Receiver: A radio receiver is a device capable of receiving commands from
a radio transmitter, interpreting the signal through the flight controller, where these commands
are translated into specific actions to control the drone. Mainly it connects the transmitter with
the controller and it fills the gap between them by interpreting signals and giving outputs.
 Figure 8. Transmitter and Receiver

Sensors: Quadcopters are equipped with various sensors, such as gyroscopes, accelerometers,
magnetometers, and sometimes GPS, to gather data on the quadcopter's orientation, altitude,
and position. This information is used by the flight controller to make necessary adjustments
for stable flight.

Figure 9. Gyroscope Sensor

1.2 Drone Power Sources:

Various power sources are available for drones, including batteries, solar power, FCs
(fuel cells), and combustion engines. However, certain power sources have been deemed unfit
for drone applications due to their drawbacks, such as excessive weight or size, limitations on
movement, or insufficient energy density. Energy and power densities are commonly used to
characterize these power sources.
Batteries are commonly used as power sources for drones due to their portability, energy
density, and rechargeable nature. Drones require a lightweight and compact power solution to
ensure optimal flight performance while carrying various onboard equipment such as cameras,
sensors, and communication systems. The most common batteries for drones are Li-Po
(Lithium Polymer) and Li-Ion (Lithium Ion). Li-air (Lithium-air) batteries can be up to seven
times higher in Energy density per kg than Li-Po and Li-Ion batteries, however, they are
unfortunately not so widely available and are much more expensive than Li-Po and Li-ion.
Llithium polymer (LiPo) batteries offer high energy density, meaning they can store a
significant amount of energy relative to their weight and size. This allows drones to achieve
longer flight times and carry heavier payloads. Additionally, LiPo batteries can be recharged
multiple times, making them cost-effective and convenient for drone operators.

1.2.1 Alternate Power Sources of Drones:

Incorporating alternative energy sources into drones offers several advantages, including
increased range, reduced reliance on fossil fuels, quieter operation, and improved safety. Solar-
powered drones are already being used for various applications, while hydrogen fuel cell and
biofuel drones are still in development but hold promising potential. As technology advances,
we can expect to see even more drones powered by alternative sources, paving the way for
more versatile, efficient, and environmentally friendly drones.

Fuel Cell powered Drones:

Hydrogen-powered UAVs, as illustrated by Figure 2., can fly for hours instead of few minutes
when traditional batteries are used. For example, LiPo batteries possess specific energy up to
250 Wh/kg, while it can reach 1000 Wh/kg in case of a fuel cell system with a compressed
hydrogen tank [2].

Figure 10. Specific energy/power comparison between energy sources [2]

In term of efficiency, fuel cells can reach a level as high as 60%. It is unfortunately lower than
that of lithium batteries (over 90%). Indeed, a fuel cell stack operation requires auxiliary
equipment, which reduces efficiency, while the onboard hydrogen generation system increases
complexity.[3]

Supercapacitors:
Supercapacitors are recently attracting attention as faster energy storage systems are
needed in a number of applications to replace or complement batteries, which suffer from
sluggish charge/discharge with a limited lifetime. A supercapacitor is characterized by a much
higher power and much lower energy densities when compared to a battery. In addition, it
operates in a large temperature range, with overcharge tolerance, low maintenance cost, and a
reasonable cost. Supercapacitors also have a longer lifespan than traditional batteries, reducing
the need for frequent replacements. Integrating a supercapacitor as an additional power in a
UAV hybrid power supply will offer an additional degree of freedom in term of supplying
architectures, while reinforcing power density and allowing rapid power response. However,
they also have some drawbacks, such as lower energy density, less efficient charging, and
higher self-discharge rate. Additionally, supercapacitors are currently more expensive than
lithium-ion batteries and are more sensitive to temperature changes. As research and
development continue, these limitations may be addressed, making supercapacitors more
competitive with lithium-ion batteries for drone applications.

Solar Cells:
The conversion of sunlight into electricity is most commonly done by converting light into
electric current through the photovoltaic (PV) effect. This current is then either directly used or
stored in a battery and the battery provides power to the system. There are two main
technologies used for solar power, PV systems or concentrated solar power (CSP). The former
being a direct conversion of sunlight into electricity and the latter being used to make steam
that allows a turbine to generate electricity. Solar panels are generally used onboard fixed-wing
drones as they require a large surface for the panels, but they can also be used to extend the
range of a rotor-type drone (used to assist the main power of the rotor-type). Solar powered
drones are quiet, have low operational costs, low maintenance costs and an excellent carbon
footprint, however, in order for them to be efficient a large area is required for the panels,
therefore increasing the size of the drone tremendously and the panels also require sunlight to
operate [4]
1.2.2 Reasons for choosing Solar energy as an additional power source:
 Solar energy is a renewable and clean energy source that does not produce any harmful
emissions or pollutants. By utilizing solar energy, drone operators can significantly
reduce their carbon footprint and contribute to a more sustainable future.
 Solar energy can extend the flight time of drones, enabling them to operate for longer
durations without the need for frequent battery recharging. This is particularly
beneficial for applications such as surveillance, monitoring, and delivery services,
where prolonged flight times are crucial.
 Solar energy can reduce the reliance on traditional batteries, which often have limited
flight times and require frequent recharging. This can not only extend the overall
operating time of drones but also lower battery replacement costs and associated
maintenance expenses.
 Solar energy systems operate silently, making them ideal for applications that require
stealth or discretion. For instance, using solar-powered drones for surveillance or
wildlife monitoring can minimize disturbances and allow for unobtrusive data
collection.
 Solar energy can be integrated into various drone designs, including fixed-wing,
multirotor, and hybrid drones. This versatility makes solar energy a suitable power
source for a wide range of drone applications.
 While the initial investment in solar panels may be higher than traditional batteries, the
long-term cost savings can be significant. Solar energy eliminates the need for frequent
battery replacements, reduces charging expenses, and contributes to overall energy
independence.
 Solar energy systems are generally considered safe and reliable, with minimal
maintenance requirements. They are not susceptible to the same risks as traditional
batteries, such as fire or explosion hazards.
 Governments worldwide are increasingly promoting the adoption of renewable energy
sources, including solar power. Drone operators may benefit from financial incentives,
tax breaks, or other support programs for incorporating solar energy into their
operations.

energy of the photon is converted to the chemical energy of the electron-hole pair. The maximal
conversion efficiency from radiative energy to chemical energy is limited by thermodynamics.
This thermodynamic limit lies in between 67% for non-concentrated sunlight and 86% for fully
concentrated sunlight.
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW AND OBJECTIVE

2.1 Literature Review:

Ahmed et al. [9] have provided a comprehensive review on UAVs/drones that covers recent
developments, methodologies, and applications. The research has presented a roadmap to
understand the successive development of advanced drones/UAVs in terms of their geometric
structure, flying mechanism, sensing and vision ability, aviation quality, path planning,
intelligent behavior, and adaptability. The literature survey conducted systematically on 254
retrieved articles published in the last 10 years and scaled down to 96 relevant articles. In these
shortlisted articles, path planning, neural network, artificial intelligence, inspection,
surveillance, tracking, and identification are the most relevant methodologies or applications
have been presented.
Mohsan et al. [10] have provided a review of academic contributions related to Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). They have also discussed UAV characteristics such as payload,
altitude, range, speed, and flight time. The study provides a comprehensive review of UAVs,
types, swarms, classifications, charging methods, and regulations. Moreover, application
scenarios, potential challenges, and security issues are also examined. Finally, future research
directions are identified to further hone the research work. The insights provided in the review
can serve as guidelines and motivations for relevant researchers. The review highlights the
potentials of UAVs, as well as their characteristics and functionality issues.
Hossain et al. [11] have provided content that has offered a short review of drone technology.
The article has discussed the construction of drones, their components, and their various
applications in different sectors. The article has highlighted the importance of drones in fields
such as agriculture, construction, public safety, security, waste management, sanitation, and
traffic monitoring. It has also focused on the technical aspects of drone technology, such as the
power system, electronic control, and communication system. Overall, the literature review has
provided a comprehensive overview of drone technology and its various applications. It has
highlighted the potential of drones to revolutionize different sectors and improve businesses.
Vishwath et al. [12] have presented a methodology for selecting appropriate components for
specific applications, considering technical requirements and cost minimization. Their
discussion encompasses challenges and needs in creating cost-effective drones for agriculture,
healthcare, firefighting, and food delivery. Technical specifications for diverse applications
enable the construction of commercial drones, complemented by explanations of component
science and technical details to aid component selection. Their method optimizes total mission
costs through motor, propeller, electronic speed controller, and battery selection.
Oettershagen et al. [12] presents the design and flight results of a small-scale hand-launchable
solar-powered UAV. The study demonstrates a continuous 28-hour solar-powered flight,
highlighting its potential for perpetual flight. The paper discusses design optimizations for
maximum safety margins and verifies flight results with theoretical models. It extends the solar-
power income model to consider various factors and analyzes conditions for perpetual flight
with today's technology. The paper concludes with an outlook on potential applications,
suggesting perpetual flight with miniaturized sensing payloads is feasible for 4-5 months.
Oettershagen et al. [13] detail the development of AtlantikSolar, a 6.9 kg solar-powered UAV
with an impressive 81-hour continuous flight. They introduce a design framework and battery
setup powered by solar cells. Testing reveals the crucial role of solar power prediction and
highlights the need for efficient aerodynamics, propulsion, and autopilot for perpetual flight.
While real-world perpetual flight applications are lacking, advancements in power-to-mass
ratio are paving the way for future missions.
Chu et al. [13] have integrated solar power onto UAV to extend its flight duration. The UAV
is a fixed wing leisure purpose RC glider. They have given a detailed report on extra
components that were used in the power system of the UAV. A comparative analysis between
UAV which is solely run by Lithium battery and by Solar power rechargeable battery was
presented in the paper. After conducting flight tests, they have verified that the flight time was
significantly extended and the installation of solar power system provided a power saving of
22.5% under fair experimental conditions and desirable weather conditions.
Morton et al. [5] have presented design considerations associated with solar powered UAVs,
a prototype small scale solar UAV has been described, and validation of the prototype has been
demonstrated through several experimental tests. They have demonstrated the effects of
Airframe design, Propulsion, Power Electronics and Solar Array on performance parameters.
The experiments have shown that captured solar power has accounted for over 300% of a
conservative estimate of the power required for level flight.
Tian et al. [14] have developed a theoretical model to estimate the curved copper indium
gallium selenide (CIGS) module’s electrical power output, compared its performance to that of
a flat module, and validated the model through experimental results of the PV modules with
changing inclination angles (30◦, 75◦, and 90◦) under various weather conditions. Based on the
verified model, they have analysed the flat/curved module’s electrical yield with different
inclination angles monthly and annually. They have investigated influence of the inner shadow
on the curved module’s electrical yield theoretically. The solar radiation arriving at the surface
of the curved PV module is not uniform, and nearby modules may cast shadows on one another
during the early morning and late evening hours. This kind of inner-shadow situation would
affect the output of the photoelectric circuit, so they have evaluated the electrical power output
of modules under mismatch conditions. Their study has established a theoretical model to
calculate the radiation distribution on the curved surface and the electrical performance of the
curved PV modules.
Sadaq et al. [15] have investigated divergent types of beneficially and readily available solar
panels of mono crystalline and poly crystalline presented at Hyderabad latitude 17.4°N,
78.43°E. It was observed efficiency and energy obtained from poly-crystalline is optimum
compared to mono-crystalline. At aperture area 0.3072 sq.m., panel generate about 1.13kWh
energy. To meet the average energy consumption i.e., about 100 units, the size of the panel
needs to be increased by 100 times i.e., 30.72 sq.m. or increase the no. of panel which can
generate the required amount of energy.
Hernandez-Callejo et al. [16] have made a review of the photovoltaic systems, where the
design, operation and maintenance are the key points of these systems. Within the design, the
critical components of the system and their own design are revised. Regarding the operation, it
is reviewed the general operation and the operation of hybrid systems, as well as the power
quality. Finally, in relation to the maintenance of PV systems, it has been studied their
performance, thermography and electroluminescence, dirt, risks and failure modes. It has been
analysed how at present, the greatest advances in photovoltaic systems are focused on improved
designs of photovoltaic systems, as well as optimal operation and maintenance, being these the
key points of PV systems research.
Goh et al. [18] detail the design and performance of a 100% solar-powered quadcopter,
achieved through extensive prototype-making and testing. They found that increasing the
surface area of solar cells outpaced the increase in aircraft weight. The quadcopter features a
carbon fibre frame with foam boards supporting solar cells. Simulations and deflection tests
determined optimal rod sizes. They chose SunPower C60 monocrystalline solar cells and
aluminium wires for efficiency and weight reduction. With 90 W per motor, the quadcopter
could generate 780 g of thrust, supporting its 2.6 kg weight. Challenges included fragility of
unlaminated solar cells and control issues in gusts. An improved design incorporating motor
tilt for thrust vectoring is suggested for better control and solar exposure.
Shiau et al. [17] In their research, focused on the design evaluation of a SPMS for an
experimental UAV application. The battery management has to handle the rapid voltage
variations due to attitude changes during maneuvers. To gain the quantitative idea of power
variations on rapid changing of the sunlight incident angle, a servo-motor-driven experimental
test bed was developed to support the evaluation. Test results on the voltage and power
variations were presented and discussed. SPMS system is divided into three stages, the first
stage being, MPPT, which attempts to increase the efficiency of the solar cells to obtain the
maximum power available from the solar cell panels. The second stage, battery management,
monitors and controls the energy storage and delivery of the solar power drawn from the solar
cell panels. The third stage, power conversion, converts the input voltage to +5 V and +12 V
for the on-board electronics. The battery management system contains two battery modules,
with one serving as the charging module and the other as the discharging module used in this
design.
El-Atab et al. [7] have discussed the advantages of stretchable and flexible solar cells in Small
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (SUAVs), enabling coverage of curved surfaces. Flexible cells have
proven to be lighter, enhancing UAV flight times. Using a Syma drone with two corrugated
solar cells, they have observed a 34-second flight time extension indoors, with only a 12g
weight increase. Sudha et al. have employed ultralight (170 gm-2) silicon thin-film solar cells,
extending flight time by 1.5 hours compared to non-solar-equipped drones, with an endurance
test showing complete battery drain after 2 hours and 50 minutes.

 From the above literature review, it is evident that with the available solar panels in the
market it is not possible to build a drone that can sustain with only solar energy as its
primary source of energy. However, various results indicate that using solar energy as a
secondary source of energy is possible to increase the flight time of the drone. While
onboard solar charging system has some limitations on size and weight which will give a
negative impact to flight time. An optimum solution can be suggested.
 CHAPTER 3 –CREATING FRAME MODEL IN SOLIDWORKS

3.1 Frame model in SolidWorks

Figure 11.

Figure 12.
 Figure 13. Final Assembly of Drone Frame in SolidWorks.

CHAPTER 4 – DESIGN AND ASSEMBLY

4.1 Approach:
 Figure 14. Flowchart representing Pathway of Project
After conducting a comprehensive theoretical study of the necessary components for
drone construction, a market analysis was performed to compile a list of available components.
The identified components from this list are utilized in building the drone. Further, flight tests
are conducted to estimate available room on board of the drone to accommodate a set of solar
panels and a secondary battery. Later, ssuggestions are provided, taking into account challenges
identified through the analysis of test results.

4.2 Components Selection for Drone Assembly:

The usage of drones in the modern era has widely increased due to the availability and
accessibility of lightweight microelectronics. These components vary mainly according to the
application of drones and the required components can be selected based on other factors like
market availability, cost effectiveness, etc.,
Understanding the Purpose -

The primary consideration in selecting drone components is the intended application of

the drone. Since the objective is to incorporate solar panels on the drone, the drone model
requires motors that rotates in higher RPMs to increase the thrust so that more payload can be
accommodated on the drone. This payload includes solar panels, secondary battery and a solar
charger board, if required, and their connecting wires.

Core Components -

The core components of a drone include the frame, motors, propellers, flight controller,
electronic speed controllers (ESCs), battery, and the transmitter and receiver. Each component
must be compatible with one another and suitable for the drone's intended use.

Frame -

The frame serves as the drone's skeleton, providing structural support. The design
should balance strength and weight and provide the necessary mounting points for other
components. A quadcopter drone frame is choses over a hexacopter drone due to higher power
consumption of hexacopter drones as they have two more motors which reduces their flight
time.

Motors -

Motors must be chosen based on the weight they need to lift and the desired thrust. The
number of motors required are four. In the market, available brushless motors have the rating
of 1000KV and 1400KV, where KV represents the number of rotations per Volt input given to
the motor. A 1400KV variant is chosen over 1000KV variant because even though a 1000KV
consumes less power than 1400KV motor which can give better flight time, it may not be
suitable to accommodate more payload, which is our primary requirement. 1000KV motors,
when used might give less stability in mid-air when the payload is increased, which is not
desirable

Propellers -

Propellers affect the drone's lift and maneuverability. Their size and pitch should match
the motors' capabilities and the drone's overall size. Smaller but compatible propellers are
considered to get smooth flight and long flight time.

Flight Controller -

The flight controller acts as the drone's brain. An Arduino board along with a suitable
Gyroscope(MPU 6050 or MPU 9250) and a Bluetooth module can be used to operate drone
with Mobile Phone or Personal Computer, this is cost efficient but reduces the operating range.
An ArduPilot Mega controller along with a Transmitter and Receiver can also be used to control
the drone. A good pair of Transmitter and Receiver can give a range up to 1 km.

Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs) -

Electronic Speed Controllers regulate the motor's speed and direction. They must be
rated for the motor's power requirements.

Battery -

The battery determines the drone's flight time. It should provide enough power for the
motors while keeping the weight to a minimum. A battery with higher capacity will increase its
weight, thereby decreasing the flight time of the drone. Since the battery contributes majorly to
the total weight of the drone, this should be kept minimum. Batteries of less capacity often
charge quicker than that of higher capacities.

Quality and Reliability -

Quality and reliability are paramount. Components should be sourced from reputable
manufacturers and tested for performance. The manufacturers of components are chosen based
on the reviews on reliable online markets and user experience.

Cost-Effectiveness -
 While quality should not be compromised, cost-effectiveness is also a factor. Some high
quality components were compromised due to their overprice. Prices of components were
compared with different online ordering websites as well as with local whole sale electronics
stores.

4.2.1 Detailed Specifications of the Drone:

Drone Frame:
 Dimension: (363x363x40) mm
 Weight: 270 grams (including PCB Panel)

PCB Panel:
 Width: 1.8 mm

Motors: 4 x A2212 1000KV Brushless Motor

 Dimension: 27.8*27mm  Shaft diameter: 3.17mm
 Max Efficiency: 80%
 Max Efficiency Current: 4-10A (>75%)
 Current Capacity: 12A/60s
 No Load Current @ 10V: 0.5A
 No. Of Cells: 2-3 Li-Poly
 Weight: 65g
 KV: 1000

Electronic Speed Controller (ESC): 30A SimonK Procedure Brushless ESC

 Drive Current: 30A (Max: 40A/10S)
 Dimension: (50x23x8) mm
 BEC rating: 5V/3A
 Weight: 25g

Power Module: Safe Connector XT-60 Male connector pigtail

 Cable Thickness: 14 AWG
 Metal Material: Brass
 Weight: 20 g
 Dimensions: 6 x 6 x 2 cm

Flight Controller: APM 2.8 Flight Controller

 Dimension: (70 x 45 x 15) mm
 Weight: 82 grams
 Input Voltage: 12-16V
 Sensors: 3-Axis Gyrometer, Accelerometer, High-performance Barometer

Transmitter and Receiver: FlySky FS-i6 2.4G 6CH AFHDS Transmitter With FS-iA6B
Receiver
Channels: 6 Channels
 RF Range: 2.40-2.48GHz
 Bandwidth: 500KHz
 Low Voltage Warning: less than 4.2V
 ANT length: 26mm*2(dual antenna)  Transmitter Weight: 392g
 Transmitter Size: (174x89x190) mm
 Power: 6V 1.5AA*4
 Control Range: 500m

Propellers: 1045 Propeller

 Diameter: 10in
 Pitch: 4.5in
 Propeller diameter: 25.4cm
 Centre bore diameter: 6mm front and 9mm reverse side.
 Centre seat TH: 6mm
 Weight: about 14g/pair

Battery: ABSD LiPo Batter/y

 Capacity: 2200 mAh
 Weight: 175 grams
 Output Voltage: 11.1 V
 Charge Rate: 1-3 C (Recommended)
 Discharge Plug: XT-60
 Balance Plug: JST-XH
 Length: 106 mm
 Width: 34 mm
 Height: 23 mm
 Max. Charge Rate: 5 C
 Max. Continuous Discharge: 80C (55.0A)

4.3 Drone Assembly:

Step 1: Unpack and Inspect Components

• Carefully unpack the quadcopter kit and all its components.

• Inspect the frame, motors, propellers, flight controller, and other accessories to ensure
they are all present and in good condition and check the working conditions of each
component.

Step 2: Attach Motors and Propellers

• Assemble the frame in a way that there will be no weight imbalance.

 • Attach the motors to the frame, ensuring they are securely in place.
• Install the propellers on the motors such that anti-clock rotating and clockwise rotating
propellers should be facing diagonally opposite, making sure to match the correct
rotation.

Step 3: Mount the Flight Controller

• Attach the flight controller board to the top of the frame using an adhesive or mounting
hardware.

Step 4: Connect the Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs)

• Solder the ESCs to the frame and properly connect the ESCs to the motors.
• Connect the flight controller to the ESCs using the appropriate cables and wiring.
• Calibrate the ESCs by following the manufacturer's instructions, which typically
involve connecting the ESCs to the flight controller and powering them on and
calibrating them using mission planner software.

Step 5: Install the Radio Receiver

• Connect the radio receiver to the flight controller using the appropriate cables.
• Bind the receiver to the radio transmitter to establish control over the quadcopter.

Step 6: Configure the Flight Controller

• Connect the flight controller to a computer and use the appropriate software (Mission
Planner) to configure the settings.
• Calibrate the flight controller's sensors, such as the accelerometer and gyroscope.
• Set up the control inputs from the radio transmitter.
Step 7: Install the Power Distribution System

• Connect XT60 module to the base plate by soldering.

• Connect the battery to the power module connector (XT60) (This will power up the
whole system)
• Ensure the power system is properly wired and connected to the flight controller and
ESCs.

Step 8: Final Assembly

• Secure all the components in place and tie up the wiring.

• Perform a thorough pre-flight check, including motor rotation and control input testing.
 • Carefully take the quadcopter outside and conduct test flights, gradually increasing the
complexity of maneuvers.

Figure 15. Final assembly picture

CHAPTER 5 – PERFORMANCE AND TEST RESULTS

5.1 Methods of control:
1. Arduino board as a controller
Arduino plays a crucial role in drone control systems, providing a versatile and
programmable platform for integrating various components and sensors. The integration of
Arduino with drones allows for precise control, data processing, and communication with
ground stations or remote controllers.
Components and Integration:
Microcontroller: Arduino Uno serves as the brain of the drone, executing programmed
instructions and interfacing with sensors and actuators. In the programmed instructions,
calibration of sensors and trial run of communication modules must be done prior to final
wiring of components with Arduino board.
Sensors: Sensors like the MPU6050 accelerometer are crucial for measuring orientation and
motion, enabling stabilization and control.
Communication Modules: HC05 Bluetooth transmitter is used to operate the drone either from
Mobile or Personal Computer which is Bluetooth enabled.
Power Management: Arduino manages power distribution to components like motors and
sensors, ensuring efficient operation and battery monitoring. This is critical for extending the
flight time and overall performance of the drone.

Figure 13. Schematic of Drone using Arduino Uno as a Controller

2. ArduPilot board as a controller:
ArduPilot serves as the backbone of autonomous drone control systems, offering a
comprehensive suite of features for mission planning, stabilization, and autonomous flight.
Components and Integration:
Microcontroller: ArduPilot Mega board is used as the microcontroller which has
preprogrammed instructions that can be modified using ArduPilot software. The board has an
inbuilt gyroscope sensor as well as self-balancing feature.
Sensors: A GPS Module can be installed to the ArduPilot board to define a path along with the
drone can move from source to destination.
Communication Module: A set of Transmitter and Receiver gives a sufficient range of about
1km to operate drone from ground level.
 Figure 14. Schematic drone using ArduPilot board as a controller

QGroundControl

Figure 15. Intial setup of Ground Control Station i.e., QGroundControl.

 Figure 16. while calibration of sensors

5.3 Test Results:

Various trial flights were carried out with the drone.

CHAPTER 6 – APPLICATIONS AND FUTURE OPTIONS

6.1 Applications of the Drone

1. Agricultural Monitoring
o Explanation: Drones can be used to survey crops, monitor soil health, and detect
pest infestations. They provide high-resolution aerial images and data to
optimize farming practices and increase yields.
2. Search and Rescue Operations
o Explanation: Equipped with thermal imaging and high-resolution cameras,
drones can assist in locating missing persons in challenging terrains or disaster
areas, significantly improving response times.
3. Infrastructure Inspection
o Explanation: Drones can inspect bridges, power lines, and other critical
infrastructure. They provide detailed imagery and data, helping to identify issues
and reduce maintenance costs without risking human safety.
4. Environmental Monitoring
 o Explanation: Drones can collect data on environmental changes, such as
deforestation, wildlife tracking, and pollution levels. This information is vital for
conservation efforts and environmental research.
5. Delivery Services
o Explanation: Drones can be used for small parcel deliveries, offering faster and
more efficient delivery options for businesses and consumers, especially in
urban and remote areas.
6. Surveillance and Security
o Explanation: Drones can provide aerial surveillance for security purposes,
monitoring large areas for suspicious activities and enhancing the safety of
premises or events.
7. Construction Site Management
o Explanation: Drones can monitor construction progress, create 3D models of
sites, and provide real-time data to improve project management and planning.
8. Media and Entertainment
o Explanation: Drones are widely used in filmmaking and photography to capture
unique aerial shots, enhancing visual storytelling and offering new perspectives.
9. Scientific Research
o Explanation: Drones can be used for collecting data in scientific studies, such
as tracking animal movements, studying weather patterns, or surveying
geological formations.
10. Disaster Response
o Explanation: Drones can assess damage in disaster-stricken areas, deliver
supplies, and provide real-time information to aid in relief efforts and recovery
operations.

6.2 Future Options and Enhancements

1. Autonomous Navigation
o Explanation: Future developments may include enhanced autonomous
navigation capabilities, allowing drones to fly without human intervention using
advanced AI and machine learning algorithms.
2. Swarm Technology
o Explanation: Drones could operate in coordinated swarms to cover larger areas
more efficiently, share data in real-time, and perform complex tasks collectively.
3. Improved Battery Life
o Explanation: Advances in battery technology could lead to longer flight times
and increased operational range, expanding the potential applications of drones.
4. Enhanced Payloads
o Explanation: Future drones might support a wider range of payloads, including
advanced sensors, larger cameras, and specialized equipment for diverse
applications.
5. 5G and Communication Advances
 o Explanation: Integration with 5G technology could provide faster and more
reliable communication, enabling real-time data transfer and remote control with
minimal latency.
6. AI and Machine Learning Integration
o Explanation: Enhanced AI and machine learning capabilities could improve
object recognition, decision-making, and autonomous flight behavior, making
drones more versatile and intelligent.
7. Regulatory and Safety Features
o Explanation: Future drones may include advanced safety systems to comply
with evolving regulations, such as collision avoidance systems and geofencing
to prevent unauthorized flight.
8. Environmental Adaptability
o Explanation: Drones could be designed to operate in extreme weather
conditions and challenging environments, expanding their usability for diverse
missions.
9. Enhanced Data Analytics
o Explanation: Advanced data analytics and processing capabilities could provide
deeper insights from the data collected by drones, leading to more informed
decision-making.
10. Public Acceptance and Integration
o Explanation: Increased public acceptance and integration into everyday life
could see drones being used more widely in urban environments and personal
applications.
These applications and future options highlight the potential of your drone to impact various
sectors positively and evolve with technological advancements

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 DIFFERENT TYPES OF VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES
A Report on Mini-Project
Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of

B. Tech in

Aerospace Engineering and Applied Mechanics

By
M L NARASIMHA (Enrolment Number: 2022AMB045)

SAURAV KUMAR (Enrolment Number: 2022AMB046)

RAJAK AMAN (Enrolment Number: 2022AMB048)

CHITHA SOREN (Enrolment Number: R2022AMB046)

Under the Guidance of

Dr. Azmira Nageswara Rao

Department of Aerospace Engineering and Applied Mechanics

Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur
Howrah –711103
November 2023
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We hereby convey our sincere respect, appreciation
and gratitude to out mentor and Guide prof.
A.Nageswara Rao, Department of aerospace
engineering and applied mechanics for his precise
technical guidance and support. This mini project
would not have been completed without his
untiringperseverance and constant
encouragement.
We would also like to put on record, our appreciation for all those who came
forward with helpful suggestion during the course of our mini project.
Date: 17th November,2023

M L NARASIMHA

Examination Roll No. 2022AMB045

SAURAV KUMAR

Examination Roll No. 2022AMB046

RAJAK AMAN

Examination Roll No. 2022AMB048

CHITA SOREN

Examination Roll No. R2022AMB046

Forwarding Certificate
I hereby forward this Mini project report on “DIFFERENT TYPES OF VISUALIZATION
TECHNIQUES ” successfully done under my guidance and supervision for the
partial fulfilment of the requirements for Five year integrated Dual Degree
under Department of Aerospace Engineering and Applied Mechanics at Indian
Institute of engineering science and technology, Shibpur.

Date: 17th November,2023

Prof. A.Nageswara Rao
Department of Aerospace Engineering

And Applied Mechanics, IIEST, Shibpur

Countersigned by:
Dr. Niloy khutia
Department of Aerospace Engineering

And Applied Mechanics, IIEST, Shibpur

Department of Aerospace Engineering and Applied Mechanics

Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur
Howrah -711103
November 2023
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. Different types of flow visualization techniques

2.1 Schlieren Technique
2.2 Oil flow visualization technique
2.3 Wall tuft technique
2.4 Smoke flow visualization
2.5 Visualization by Dye in water
2.6 Interferometry
2.7 Shadowgarph

3. Conclusion
4. References
 ABSTRACT

The techniques of flow visualization and their application in wind

tunnels, water channels, and experiments related to propulsion
research are reviewed. These techniques can be classified roughly
into three major groups: Surface flow visualization, scattering from
flow tracers, and density sensitive flow visualization. The progress m
laser optics and the wide-spread use of computers has led to the
development of novel techniques and evaluation procedures, which
are included in the review; e.g. laser-induced fluorescence, speckle
photography, image processing, and optical tomography. Emphasis is
given to the discussion of the physical background of the methods.
Information on technical details is provided by means of a number of
sample photographs and by respective references.
Reviews of experimental techniques are necessary from time to time
due to the rapid development of the hardware and software of the
respective methods. Flow visualization is an important diagnostic tool
for wind tunnels, water tunnels, and other facilities, since it provides
an over-all view of the flow in a whole field, sometimes even allowing
for taking quantitative data. Flow visualization has had a considerable
benefit from the development of laser optics and computational
methods.
1.INTRODUCTION
The role of flow visualization in experimental fluid-mechanical
research has been appraised many times, and a number of reviews or
comprehensive descriptions, either of the whole field or particular
applications, are available; see, e.g., [1.1-1.8]. The development of
new techniques and instruments make it necessary to revise the
visualization methods from time to time. The majority of the recent
technical developments in this area result from the progress made in
laser optics and the wide-spread use of computers for analyzing
experimental data. Laser-induced fluorescence, speckle photography,
image processing, and optical tomography are examples of such
modern developments. The application of novel techniques can
provide new insight into existing problems in fluid mechanics. As an
example, two references are quoted which discuss the state of the art
of research in turbulence: "Flow visualization ... appears to have found
a kind of rebirth in recent years. ... Flow visualization is essential not
only in obtaining a clear perception of the flow ... but also in planning
sophisticated measurements. ... Still another facet of the second
revolution (i.e.: in turbulence research) in which flow visualization
plays the central role is image processing" [1.9], and: "It is ironical that
coherent structures ..., the Brown-Roshko vortices, and longitudinal
vortices in the sublayer of a turbulent boundary layer were all found
by the most primitive of experimental methods, flow visualization".
2.DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES

2.1 Schlieren Technique

Schlieren is German for „striations‟. The term was coined by Albert
Töpler, who developed the technique in 1906 from a related technique
used to identify figuring errors in telescope mirrors. Schlieren
photography is a way of visualizing density variations in a gas, and is
useful in wind tunnel studies and investigations into heat flow. It
employs a shadowgraph principle. A collimated (i.e. parallel) beam of
light passes through the test space and is brought to a focus at a knife
edge; it then diverges on to a screen or a camera system. Any gas
density gradient with a component perpendicular to the knife edge
will deviate the light from the region, so that it either clears the edge,
giving a bright area on the screen, or is intercepted by it, giving a dark
area. The resolution can be improved by a further knife edge at the
first focus of the system. Where large spaces are to be imaged, off-axis
parabolic mirrors are used rather than lenses to collimate and focus
the beam shows in Figure 2.1 (Settles, 2001).

Figure2.1: Basic schlieren setting (Settles, 2001)

Schlieren photography is sensitive enough to record the pattern of
warm air rising from a human hand, but a more sensitive test uses
interferometry, in a kind of hybrid of schlieren photography and
holography. A laser beam replaces the white light beam, and a
beamsplitter and beam combiner form a Mach-Zehnder
interferometer set-up shown in Figure 2.2. This shows density
differences directly, rather than density gradients.

Figure2.2: A laser beam replace the white light beam in Schlieren (Settles, 2001)

Schlieren is optical inhomogeneities in transparent material not visible

to the human eye. Schlieren physics developed out of the need to
produce high-quality lenses void of these inhomogeneities. These
inhomogeneities are localized differences in optical path length that
cause light deviation. This light deviation is converted to shadow in a
schlieren system. Schlieren were first observed by Robert Hooke in
1665 using a large convex lens and two candles (Hooke, 1665). One
candle served as a light source. The warm air rising from the second
candle provided the schlieren. The conventional schlieren system is
credited mostly to August Toepler. Toepler's original system was
designed to detect schlieren in glass used to make lenses (Toepler,
1864). In the conventional schlieren system, a point source is used to
illuminate the test section containing the schlieren. An image of this
light is formed using a converging lens (also called a schlieren lens).
This image is located at the conjugate distance to the lens according to
the thin lens as denoted in Equation 2.1:
1/f = 1/d0 + 1/di (2.1)
where f is the focal length of the lens,

do is the distance from the object to the lens

di is distance from the image of the object to lens.

A knife edge at the point sourceimage location is positioned as to

partially block some light from reaching the viewing screen. The
illumination of the image is reduced uniformly. A second lens is used
to image the test section to the viewing screen. The viewing screen is
located a conjugate distance from the plane of the schlieren (Rienitz,
1975).

2.1.1 Various Techniques of Schlieren System

Setting
• Parallel Light Beam Setting
Schlieren images are most often made in a parallel beam of light
shows in Figure 2.6, which illustrates a compact setup. A light source
is focused on to a slit that is placed off axis and exactly one focal length
from a lens or mirror. This produces a parallel beam of light that
illuminates the test specimen. The test field is limited by the size of the
major optical elements, so mirror arrangements are more common
than refracting systems because large mirrors are easier to find.
Figure 2.3: Typical Schlieren set-up used for visualizing deviations of an initially parallel light beam
(CIMEX Evaporation, 2008)

• “Z” Configuration Schlieren

The illustration shows the “z” configuration which minimizes the
coma aberration in the focus. Mirrors are most often used because of
the absence of chromatic aberration. Figure 2.7 showed the setting
of “Z” configuration.

Figure 2.4: Knife-edge method of viewing Schlieren,

employing the “z” configuration (Settles, 2001)
2.2 Oil Flow Visualization Technique
The surface of model is coated with a thin layer of oil in which a
finely powdered pigment is solved. When the wind tunnel is turned
on, the oil is carried away with the air stream, and the dry pigment
remains on the surface where it forms a streaky pattern indicating
the direction of the flow close to the surface. Particular phenomena
in the remaining pattern are attributed to flow separation from the
surface or flow reattachment. A test model to which the mixture of
oil and pigment was applied can be taken out of the test section,
after the tunnel has been stopped, and the pattern on the model
surface can be inspected outside the wind tunnel.

the mixture should not begin to run until the selected wind speed is
reached, and after an appropriate time of running, the pattern should
be sufficiently dry to be unaffected by the unsteady air flow when the
tunnel is stopped.
The pigment in the mixture should provide a clear pattern against the
model surface as the background. A white powder like titanium
dioxide (Tio-) or China clay can be used on a dark model . Lampblack,
a fine powder that mixes well with oil is most suitable on a light
model surface.
Fluorescent pigments, when illuminated with ultraviolet light, can
provide a very Brillant surface pattern; only the surface pattern to be
visualized is seen, whereas model and background remain invisible.
The pigment in the mixture should provide a clear pattern against the
model surface as the background. Lampblack, a fine powder that
mixes well with oil is most suitable on a light model surface; see, e.g.,
Meznarsic and Gross, or Sparrow and Comb. The dispersion of the
pigment in oil may be improved by adding a few drops of oleic acid,
see Keener. Fluorescent pigments, when illuminated with ultraviolet
light, can provide a very brillant surface pattern; only the surface
pattern to be visualized is seen, whereas model and background
remain invisible. This is of particular interest if the model geometry is
complex; see, e.g., Gessner and Chan. The pigment pattern remaining
on the model surface can be photographed for the purpose of
recording it. If the model surface is curved, a problem comes up in
relating the plane record of the curved surface pattern to a surface
coordinate system. As a solution to this problem. Sparrow and Comb
cover the model surface with white, plasticized, self-adhering contact
paper, and they apply the oil-pigment (lampblack) mixture to the
paper. After the visible pattern is formed, the paper is separated from
the wall and laid flat for being photographed.
2.3 Wall Tuft
A relatively simple means for obtaining an idea on the direction
of flow close to a solid wall is to attach one end of short tufts to the
body surface. In laminar, attached flow, these tufts may well indicate
the local flow direction. When the flow becomes unsteady or
turbulent, the tufts perform a certain unsteady motion, and this may be
taken as an indication that the wall boundary layer has become
turbulent. A more violent motion of the tufts, or a tendency to lift
from the surface, may indicate a separated flow regime. The choice of
tuft size and material depends on the flow conditions and the size of
the model to be tested. Tufts of ordinary yarn and several centimetres
long have been used on full-scale car models in a wind tunnel, and on
full-scale airplanes in flight. It is obvious that tufts of this size and the
corrugation caused by the glue or the device fixing the tufts affect the
surface conditions of the flow.

Furthermore, it has been observed that, due to instabilities induced at

particular wind speeds, the tufts may perform a self-excited flagging
motion, which obscures the indication of flow separation. For in-flight
tests, Crowder and Robertson use light, rigid, narrow, conical
elements, which are attached to the wind surface with a short string at
their apex. In contrast to the tufts, these elements, several centimetres
long, behave stable in attached flow. In order to minimize interference
between tufts and flow, Crowder has developed "Mini tufts" made
from thin nylon monofilament, with a diameter of about 20 micro
meter. In order to enhance the visibility, the nylon is treated with
fluorescent dye, and the tufts are observed or photographed with UV
illumination. The surface flow pattern on rotating propellers as well
on models in a water tunnel has been successfully visualized with
these Mini tufts.

2.4 Smoke flow visualization

Smoke flow visualization is a widely used technique in fluid
dynamics to study the behaviour and characteristics of airflow
patterns. By introducing smoke into a fluid medium, researchers can
observe and analyse the movement, turbulence, and interactions
within the fluid. This method is particularly valuable in aerodynamics,
environmental science, and engineering applications.

Principle: The basic principle involves introducing smoke particles or a

smoke generator into the fluid of interest. As the smoke interacts with
the flow, it provides a visible representation of the fluid dynamics,
allowing researchers to track the movement and patterns in real-time.

Materials and Setup:

• Smoke Generator:
• A device that produces a controlled amount of smoke,
often utilising materials like glycol or mineral oil.
• Test Section:
• The area or apparatus where the fluid flow is being
investigated, such as a wind tunnel or water channel.
Smoke wind tunnel

• Light Source:
• Adequate lighting is essential for clear visualization of the
smoke patterns.
• Observation System:
• Cameras or other optical instruments capture the
movement of the smoke for subsequent analysis.

Procedure:

• Generating Smoke:
 • Smoke is introduced into the fluid medium either
continuously or in pulses, depending on the specific
requirements of the experiment.
• Flow Visualization:
• The smoke interacts with the fluid flow, creating visible
streaks, patterns, and structures that represent the
movement of the fluid.
• Recording:
• Cameras or imaging systems capture the smoke patterns,
allowing for detailed analysis.

Applications:

• Aerodynamics:
• Smoke flow visualization is extensively used in
aerodynamic studies to analyze the airflow around aircraft,
vehicles, or other aerodynamic surfaces.
• Environmental Studies:
• It aids in understanding atmospheric dispersion, pollutant
transport, and the dynamics of natural airflows.
• Wind Tunnel Testing:
• Essential in wind tunnel experiments to observe and
analyze the aerodynamic properties of models.
• HVAC Systems:
• Applied in Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
(HVAC) systems to optimize airflow and identify potential
issues.

Advantages:

• Qualitative Insight:
• Provides qualitative insights into fluid flow patterns,
turbulence, and vortices.
• Real-Time Observation:
 • Enables real-time observation of complex fluid dynamics,
offering immediate feedback on the behavior of the flow.
• Cost-Effective:
• Compared to some high-tech measurement techniques,
smoke flow visualization is relatively cost-effective.

Challenges:

• Limited Quantitative Data:

• While excellent for qualitative observations, smoke flow
visualization has limitations in providing precise
quantitative data on velocity and other parameters.
• Environmental Considerations:
• The choice of smoke-generating materials may impact the
environment, and precautions need to be taken
accordingly.

2.5 Visualization by dye in water

Visualization by dye in water is a commonly employed technique

in fluid dynamics to observe and analyze the movement and patterns
of fluids, particularly in water. By introducing colored dyes into the
water, researchers can track the flow, dispersion, and behavior of the
fluid in various experimental setups. This method is widely used in
hydrodynamics, environmental science, and hydraulic engineering.

Principle:

The principle involves introducing a small amount of dye into the fluid,
allowing the dye to disperse naturally. The movement of the dye
provides a visible representation of the fluid dynamics, allowing for
the observation and analysis of flow patterns.

Sketches of the experimental set-up for the dye flow

visualizations

Materials and Setup:

• Dye:
• Water-soluble dyes are commonly used to ensure easy
dispersion in the fluid medium.
• Test Section:
• The area or apparatus where fluid flow is being
investigated, often a water channel or tank.
• Light Source:
• Adequate lighting is crucial for clear visualization of the dye
patterns.
• Observation System:
• Cameras or other optical instruments to capture the
movement of the dye for subsequent analysis.
Procedure:

• Dye Introduction:
• A small, controlled amount of dye is introduced into the
fluid medium, either at a specific point or continuously
depending on the experiment's requirements.
• Natural Dispersion:
• The dye disperses naturally within the fluid, highlighting
the flow patterns and structures.
• Flow Visualization:
• The movement of the dye is observed and recorded to
analyze the fluid's behavior.

Recording:

• Cameras or imaging systems capture the dye patterns,

enabling detailed analysis of the fluid flow.

Applications:

• Hydraulic Studies:
• Used to study the flow patterns in rivers, channels, and
hydraulic structures to optimize designs and understand
water dynamics.
• Environmental Monitoring:
• Applied to observe the dispersion of pollutants, sediment
transport, and other environmental factors in water
bodies.
• Fluid Mechanics Research:
• Valuable in fundamental fluid mechanics studies to
visualize and analyze various flow phenomena.

Advantages:

• Cost-Effective:
 • Dye visualization is a relatively inexpensive method
compared to some advanced measurement techniques.
• Simple Setup:
• Requires minimal equipment, making it accessible for a
wide range of applications.
• Qualitative Insight:
• Provides qualitative insights into fluid flow patterns and
allows for easy visual interpretation.

Challenges:

• Quantitative Limitations:
• While effective for qualitative observations, dye
visualization has limitations in providing precise
quantitative data on fluid parameters.
• Dye Concentration:
• Controlling the concentration of dye can be challenging,
affecting the visibility and accuracy of observations.

2.6 Interferometry
Schlieren interferometry is an optical technique used for
visualizing variations in refractive index within a transparent medium.
It is commonly employed in fluid dynamics and heat transfer studies
to observe density gradients, temperature variations, and fluid flow
patterns.
The experimental setup of the Michelson interferometry.

Components of a Schlieren Interferometer:

• Light Source:
• A collimated light source, often a point source or a lensed
source, generates a parallel beam of light.
• Collimating Lens:
• A lens used to convert the divergent light from the source
into a collimated beam.
• Schlieren System:
• A system that creates a shadowgraph of the variations in
refractive index. This typically involves a knife-edge, a
beam splitter, and a lens.
• Test Section:
• The region where the transparent medium under
investigation is placed. Density variations in the medium
 cause changes in the refractive index, creating visible
patterns.
• Imaging System:
• Optical components such as lenses and mirrors focus the
light onto a screen or camera, allowing for the visualization
of the schlieren patterns.

Wollaston Prism:

A Wollaston prism is a birefringent optical device that can split a light

beam into two orthogonally polarized components. It is often used in
polarization experiments and interferometry.

Possible Configuration:

In a Schlieren interferometer, the Wollaston prism may be employed

to separate the two orthogonally polarized components of light. This
separation can be advantageous for specific applications, providing
additional information about the optical path differences in the
system.

Advantages:

• Polarization Sensitivity:
• The use of a Wollaston prism can make the interferometer
sensitive to polarized light, allowing for additional insights
into the optical properties of the medium.
• Improved Contrast:
• By utilizing polarization, the system may achieve improved
contrast in the visualization of density gradients or other
variations in the test medium.

2.7 shadowgraph
 The shadowgraph, scientifically explored first by Dvorak is the
simplest of the optical visualization methods. It does not require any
optical element except a light source, and the shadow effect produced
by refractive index fields can be observed, therefore, outside a
laboratory in the open air where the sun serves as the light source.
Examples are the shadow patterns of raising warm air or benzene
vapor, projected by the sun light onto a rigid surface. Even projections
of shock waves have been observed in the open air, as will be shown
below. In a laboratory experiment, either a divergent or a parallel
beam of light is transmitted through the test section of the flow facility.
The shadow pattern is observed in a plane, normal to the optical axis,
at a distance i behind the flow field. Most essential, as for any optical
visualization method, is the use of a point source. In order to avoid
noise by diffraction, a thermal light source should be used and not a
laser source.

Shadowgraph system without (a) and with (b) camera; 1: point light source; 2:
optical axis; 3: collimating lenses; 4: cross section of flow facility test section; 5:
recording plane (photographic film); 6: camera objective.

It is of interest to visualize large fields of view. Because it is then

impractical to record the shadow on a respectively large photographic
plate, a camera is focused onto the position (plane) at distance I from
the test field. The choice of the value of I depends on the flow under
study. The sensitivity of the method with respect to resolving small
density changes increases with I; however, edges of rigid bodies in the
test field, e.g. test models, will be the more out of focus, the larger the
value of £, so that it becomes often necessary to find a compromise
between optical sensitivity and local resolution. Visualization of a flow,
which is invisible when viewed without any optical aid, means that the
plane of observation (recording plane) contains an information which
is perceivable for the eye. Since the eye can perceive information only
in the form of changes 51 of light amplitude or intensity, the optical
analysis of the shadowgraph determines the relative changes of light
intensity, AI/I, which exist in the recording plane due to the shadow
effect.

Shadowgraph of a projectile flying at supersonic speed. Clearly seen are the formation of
shock waves and the turbulent wake behind the projectile (GermanFrench Research Institute
ISL, St. Louis, France).
 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the exploration of various flow visualization techniques
has provided a comprehensive understanding of their applications
across diverse industries. The significance of these techniques extends
beyond academic research, finding practical applications in fields
ranging from aerospace engineering to medical diagnostics.
It is crucial to acknowledge the limitations and challenges associated
with each technique, considering factors such as complexity, cost,
adaptability to specific environments. Moreover, interdisciplinary
collaboration between researchers, engineers, and practitioners is
essential for pushing the boundaries of flow visualization and
addressing real-world challenges.
In conclusion, the diverse array of flow visualization techniques
presented in this report underscores the dynamic nature of fluid
research. As we continue to refine our understanding and push the
boundaries of technological capabilities, these methods will
undoubtedly play a pivotal role in shaping the future of fluid dynamics
studies and their practical applications.
References

Lackner M., Charareh S., and Winter F. ( 2004) Investigation of the

early stages in laser-induced ignition by Schlieren photography
and laser induced fluorescence spectroscopy (C) 2004 OSA Vol. 12,
No. 19 / OPTICS EXPRESS 4546

Peres M. R. (2007) The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography: Digital

Imaging, Theory and Applications, History, and Science Focal
Press ISBN 0240807405, 9780240807409

Settles G. S., Hackett E. B., Miller J.D., and Weinstein L.M.(2001)

Full-Scale Schlieren Flow Visualization NASA Langley Research
Center, MS 493