Introduction to Communication
Information and Technology
Lecture 4
9/18/2024 1
Lecture Outline
HOW COMPUTERS PROCESS PROCESSING CYCLE MEMORY TYPES
DATA
What is Processing?
The procedure that
transforms raw data into
useful information is called
processing.
This is done using
computers processor and
memory.
How Computers Process Data
❑ Two components process data “CPU” and “Memory”
❑ The CPU
▪ Central Processing Unit
▪ Brain of the computer as all data processing is
done here
▪ Supercomputers and mainframes have number of
processing units
▪ A microcomputer has a single processing unit
called microprocessor
▪ Every processing unit has two parts
o Control unit
o Arithmetic logic unit
How Computers Process Data
Control unit Arithmetic logic unit
As computer data is stored as numbers, mostly
Controls all the resources in processing involves simple math operations
computer
The computer can perform two operations
Controls data flow through CPU
Arithmetic = addition, subtraction,
and to and from other devices
multiplication and division
CPU’s instructions to carry out
Logical = comparisons (which number is greater
commands are built into CU
than or less than etc.)
How Computers Process Data
❑ Many instructions carried out by CU are moving data from memory to
storage or vice versa or moving it to other devices like printer
❑ if any instruction has arithmetic or logical operation, CU passes such
instruction to ALU
❑ ALU has a set of registers
❑ Registers are a high-speed memory location built directly onto the
CPU
❑ ALU holds the data currently being used in calculations in the
registers
How Computers Process Data
❑ Machine cycles
▪ Steps taken by CPU to process data
(execute a single instruction) is called
a machine cycle
▪ Machine cycle is broken into
o Instruction cycle
o Execution cycle
How Computers Process Data
❑ Instruction cycle (CPU gets the instruction)
▪ At the start of each instruction cycle, CPU goes through two steps
1. Fetching
Before CPU can execute an instruction, the CU must fetch (get) the
command or data from the memory
2. Decoding
Before a command can be executed, the CU must break down
(decode) the instruction into an instruction set matching to the CPU
How Computers Process Data
❑ Execution cycle
1. Executing
CPU executes the instructions
2. Storing
o CPU may be required to store the output in memory but not
always
CPU performance is measured in
number of instructions processed per
second
Often measured in MIPS (Millions
instructions per second)
How Computers
Process Data Pipelining processes more data
Multitasking allows multiple
instructions (Threading)
How Computers Process Data
❑ Memory
▪ CPU cannot contain entire programs or large set of data
▪ CPU needs millions / trillions of bytes of space to quickly
read or store data currently in use
▪ This space is called memory
▪ Small chips on the motherboard or small circuit boards
attached to motherboard
▪ More memory makes a computer faster
Volatile
• RAM
Non-volatile
• MROM
Memory Types • PROM
• EPROM
• EEPROM
Cache
• Fast
• Layers
❑ Non-volatile memory
▪ Holds data when power is
How off
Computers ▪ Read Only Memory (ROM)
Process ▪ Basic Input Output System
(BIOS)
Data ▪ Power On Self Test (POST)
Non-volatile Memory
❑ The memory from which we can only read but
cannot write on it
❑ The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture
❑ A ROM stores such instructions that are required
to start a computer
❑ This operation is referred to as bootstrap.
❑ ROM chips are not only used in the computer but
also in other electronic items like washing
machine and microwave oven
Types of ROM
❑ MROM (Masked ROM)
▪ hard-wired devices that contain a pre-programmed set of data or instructions
❑ PROM (Programmable ROM)
▪ PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user
▪ The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
program.
▪ Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming
▪ It can be programmed only once and is not erasable
▪ Used in cell phones, gaming consoles, RFID tags
Types of ROM
❑EPROM (Erasable and Programmable ROM)
▪ EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a
duration of up to 40 minutes.
▪ Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function.
▪ Not only used in computers but also in memory sticks etc
Types of ROM
❑ EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM)
▪ EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically.
▪ It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing
and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond).
▪ In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed.
▪ EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire
chip.
▪ Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow
How Computers Process Data
❑Flash memory
▪ Data is stored using physical switches
▪ Example: a picture will be stored by turning trillions of switches on
and off
▪ Special form of nonvolatile memory
▪ Camera cards, USB key chains
❑ Volatile memory
▪ Requires power to hold data
▪ Random Access Memory (RAM)
How ▪ Desktop computers have
Computers o Single in-line Memory
Module (SIMM)
Process o Dual in-line Memory Module
(DIMM)
Data ▪ Laptop computers have
o Small outline – DIMM
(SO-DIMM)
Volatile memory
▪ The “Random” in RAM implies that any location of
RAM can be accessed at any time
▪ This helps make RAM very fast
▪ Data in RAM has an address– memory address is a
number that indicates a location on the memory
chip
▪ CPU reads data using the address
Cache Memory
▪ Moving data between RAM and the CPU’s register is one of the
most time consuming task, as Ram is more slower than CPU. A
partial solution is to add a small memory with the CPU.
▪ It is similar to RAM, but very fast.
▪ It holds common or recently used data. Speeds up computer
processing.
▪ Most computers have several caches. When a program is
running and CPU needs to read data, it first checks whether the
data is in the Cache memory. If the data is not there, then CPU
loads the data from RAM to registers and also, loads a copy to
the Cache.
