5.0 PROBLEM SOLVING Problem solving is a mental process which is the concluding part of the larger problem process that includes problems finding and problem shaping where problem is defined as a state of desire for the reaching of a definite goal from a present condition that either is not directly moving toward the goal, is far from it or needs more complex logic for finding a missing description of conditions or steps toward the goal. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as a higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills. Problem solving has two major domains: mathematical problem solving and personal problem solving where, in the second, some difficulty or barrier is encountered. Further problem solving occurs when moving from a given state to a desired goal state is needed for either living organisms or an artifical intelligence system. 5.1 CHARACTERSTICS OF DIFFICULT PROBLEMS As elucidated by Dietrich Dormer and later expanded upon by Joachim Eunke. difficult problems have some typical characteristics that can be summarized as follows: (a) Intransparency (lack of clarity of the situation) © commencement opacity © continuation opacity (b) Polytely (multiple goals) © inexpressiveness © opposition © ‘transience (©) Complexity (large numbers of items, interrelations and decisions) © enumerability. © connectivity (hierarchy relation, communication relation, allocation relation) © heterogeneity7 Baran (4) Dynamics (time considerations) ‘© temporal constraints @ temporal sensitivity © phase effects @ dynamic unpredictability The resolution of difficult problems requires a direct attack on each of these characteristics that are encountered. 5.2 PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES These techniques are usually called problem solving strategies. (a) Abstraction : solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system (b) Analogy : using a solution that solves an analogous problem (©) Brainstorming : (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum is found (@) Divide and conquer : breaking down a |: it : large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems ste tae © Hypothesis testing : assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption (® Means-ends analysis : choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal Proof ; try to prove that the ace Problem cannot be solved. The poi the Proof fails will be the starting point for solving it Leas () Reduction : transformin; solutions exist @ Research : employing existing j fate ae ying existing ideas or adapting existing solutions !° @ Root cause analysis : elimi : eliminati () Trial-and-error : testing eae the cause of the problem The methods are explained, ible solutions until the right one is found @® ig the problem into another problem for which 5.2.1 Trial and Error Method Trial and error, or trial by error, i repair, tuning, or obtaining knowl sage €xPerimental method of problem soli but rather from ania the failure, making a ve happen from failure it In the field of computer soj ¢, and then trying in.” elementary algebra, when nolvinpen sn method is called ae tet | ‘Cquations, it ig “guess and i a oe |Trial and error has a number of features: (a) (b) ©) @) solution-oriented: trial and error makes no attempt to discover why a solution works, merely that it is a solution. problem-specific: trial and error makes no attempt to generalise a solution to other problems. non-optimal: trial and error is generally an attempt to find a solution, not all solutions, and not the best solution. needs little knowledge: trials and error can proceed where there is little or no knowledge of the subject. Application (trial and error) (a) (b) ©) Trial and error has traditionally been the main method of finding new drugs, such as antibiotics. Chemists simply try chemicals at random until they find one with the desired effect. In a more sophisticated version, chemists select a narrow range of chemicals it is thought may have some effect using a technique called structure-activity relationship. (The latter case can be alternatively considered as a changing of the problem rather than of the solution strategy: instead of “What chemical will work well as an antibiotic?” the problem in the sophisticated approach is “Which, if any, of the chemicals in this narrow range will work well as an antibiotic?”) The method is used widely in many disciplines, such as polymer technology to find new polymer types or families. ; The scientific method can be regarded as containing an element of trial and error in its formulation and testing of hypotheses. Also compare genetic algorithims, simulated annealing, and reinforcement learning - all varieties for search which apply the basic idea of trial and error. ‘ Biological evolution ‘is also a form of trial and error. Random mutations and sexual genetic variations can be viewed as trials and poor reproductive fitness, or lack of improved fitness, as the error. Thus after a lorig time ‘knowledge’ of well-adapted genomes accumulates simply by virtue of them being able to reproduce. 52.2 Brain Storming method lis Planers erecbye technique was first introduced by Alex Osborne in the 1930s Beneration of new ted ‘boa ‘2 Rapport creative probipga solving. Te brainstorming technique is based a acceptance of proposed solutions. The © capacity of the human brain to make, 72 Ardent’s Programming Principle & A\ hears the word “fun”, the associations. For example, . " automatically searches for word associations and produces suggestions such as cinemy theatre or concert, or terms such as humour, friends, relaxation, free time, sun, seq = when a person sees 0! so on. Although the capacity of one person is somewhat limited, the production i words increases enormously if there are more people working together. The reason fo, this is that the word associations thought of by others makes the brain of each person work faster and search in much wider areas than it would without such stimulus, The theory of associations is the first principle of brainstorming.The mominnal group technique all 38 a type of brainstorming that encourages ce ws MPAA say inthe proces. It is also used to generate a ranked list Parbcipants are asked to write their ideas ’. collects the ideas and the group votes on each idea. The vote can be as simple as a show of hands 1m favour of a given idea. This process is called distillation. After distillation, the top ranked ideas may be sent back to the group or to subgroups for further brainstorming. For example, one group may work on the color required in a product. Another group may work on the size, and so forth. Each group will come back to the whole group for ranking the listed ideas. Sometimes ideas that were previously dropped may be brought forward again once the group has re-evaluated the ideas. 2. Team idea mapping method This method of brainstorming works by the method of association. It may improve collaboration and increase the quantity of ideas, and is designed so that all attendees participate and no ideas are rejected. 3. Directed brainstorming Directed brainstorming is a variation of electronic brainstorming (described above). It can be done manually or with computers. Directed brainstorming works when the solution space (that is, the set of criteria for evaluating a good idea) is known Prior to the session. If known, those criteria can be used to constrain the « Guided brainstorming A guided brainstorming session is time set aside to brainstorm either individually 88 a collective group about a particular subject under the constraints of perspective ‘nd time. This type of brainstorming removes all cause for conflict and constrains “eversations while stimulating critical and creative thinking in an engaging. balanced Participants are asked to adopt different mindsets for pre-defined period of time vile contributing their ideas to a central mind map drawn by a pre-appointed scribe ‘eving examined a multi-perspective point of view, participants seemingly see the “= ‘solutions that collectively create greater growth. Action is assigned “SviduailyAraem 2: -~o— - a 74 ion brainstorming a — 5. cues rocess involves brainstorming the questions, rather “ we ® come w i a te answers and short term solutions. Theoretically, t a que should _ i ions. answers boreres participation as there is no need to provide solutions: Fa in ° the Ls ™ form the framework for constructing future action plans. Once ie is of Lance, is et it may be necessary to prioritize them to reach to the best solution in an question: s orderly way. The ene of a well-organized brainstorming session are numerous, They include: / / (a) Solutions can be found rapidly and economically; (b) Results and ways of problem-solving that are new and unexpected. (c) A wider picture of the problem or issue can be obtained; (d) The atmosphere within the team is more open; 5.2.3 Divide and Conquer Method A divide and conquer algorithm works by recursively breaking down a problem into two or more sub-problems of the same (or related) type, until these become simple enough to be solved directly. The solutions to the sub-problems are then combined to give a solution to the original problem. Three-step process: 1. Divide the problem into smaller problems. 2. Conquer by solving these problems. 3. Combine these results together. Examples: Binary Search, Merge sort. Quicksort etc. Matri iplicati 5 1, Merg a . . : latrix multiplication,5.3 PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS The Problem Solving process consists of a sequence of sections that fit together depending on the type of problem to be solved. These are: (a) Problem Definition. (b) Problem Analysis. (c) Generating possible Solutions. (d) Analyzing the Solutions. (©) Selecting the best Solution(s). The process is only a guide for problem solving. It is useful to have a structure to follow to make sure that nothing is overlooked. Nothing here is likely to be brand new - to anyone, but it is the pure acknowledgement and reminding of the process that can help the problems to be solved. 1. Problem Definition The normal process for solving a problem will initially involve defining the Problem you want to solve. You need to decide what you want achieve and write it down. Often people keep the problem in their head as a vague idea and can so often get lost in what they are trying to solve that no solution seems to fit. Merely writing down the problem forces you to think about what you are actually trying to solve and howArdent’s Programming Principle & Algors. The first part of the process not only involves writing doy. checking that you are answering the right problem [tis do not answer a side issue or only solve the part of te People often use the most immediate solution to %. g time checking the problem i, 76 much you want to achieve. the problem to solve, but also check-step to ensure that you problem that is most easy to solve. first problem definition that they find without spendin; the right one to answer. 2. Problem Analysis The next step in the process is often to check where we are, what is the curren: situation and what is involved in making it a problem. For example, what are the benefits of the current product/service/process? And why did we decide to make it like that? Understanding where the problem is coming from, how it fits in with current developments and what the current environment is, is crucial when working out whether a solution will actually work or not. Similarly you must have a set of criteria by which to evaluate any new solutions or you will not know whether the idea is workable or not. This section of the problem solving process ensures that time is spent in stepping back and assessing the current situation and what actually needs to be changed. After this investigation, it is often good to go back one step to reconfirm that your problem definition is still valid. Frequently after the investigation people discover that the oa they really want to answer is very different from their original interpretation of it 3. Generating possible Solutions ____ When you have discovered the real problem that you want to solve and have investigated the climate into which the solution must fit, the next stage is to generate ° number of possible solutions. At this stage you should concentrate on generating many solutions oe — raed them at all. Very often an idea, which would hav ‘ ned om Hae evaluated properly, can be developed into a supe cach deans ano seg knot re;judge any potential solations but should right and worthy of consideration, ‘This section of th factors about each of ee Hid Process is where you investigate the various : : ‘al solutions, Yor good d apa u note down the good and bad poin's =. oo hi a relevant to each solution. Even at this stage you - ne! ‘use if you do so then you could decide not to write do" the valid good points abou ri it it becay might discover that by urgg nee OVA! You think it will not work. However ¥ Y writin, ; advantage. Only by discoverin, pas MS advantages that it has a totally uniave idea so that it will work. TiS MiBht You choose to put the effort in to develop th ~~muri ww HUNT SOlving lecting the best Solution(s) This is the section where you look h possible solution and decide which k at the solution as a whole and use y ornot. In Innovation Toolbox, you can or on a sliding scale depending on ho figures dictate which ideas will work a purely feelings and intuition that decid experience and judgement compresse through the various influencing factors for Solutions to keep and which to disregard. You (Our judgement as to whether to use the solution Vote using either a Yes/No/Interesting process W good the idea is. Sometimes pure facts and ind which will not. In other situations, it will be les. Remember that intuition is really a lifetimes d into a single decision. By voting for the solutions you will end up with a shortlist of potential solutions. You may want to increase the depth in the analysis of each idea and vote again on that shortlist to further refine your shortlist, ES AES) SOLUTIONS IDENTIFY Lil CAUSES, Problem solving process steps.