21-10-2024

• Uses a frequency of 2.4 GHz (12.5cm wavelength) to heat and cook

food.

Microwave Owen • Microwaves are non-ionising, high-frequency, short wavelength

electromagnetic waves.
• Microwave energy is generated using a “magnetron”
• Microwaves cannot pass through the metal walls of the oven,
• But they can penetrate such materials as glass, porcelain and paper,
the materials out of which microwave-safe cookware is constructed
• 4 concave reflectors are located on the left and back sides to
concentrate the microwave energy on the food.
 21-10-2024

Magnetron
• Magnetron is a conjunction of the words
magnet and electrons
• There will always be an even number of
resonant chambers, usually not less than
6 and not more than 16
• The chamber is sealed with top and
bottom cover plates and the air is drawn
out to form a vacuum
• The magnetron will only operate as an
oscillator
 21-10-2024

MICROWAVE OVEN BLOCK DIAGRAM MICROWAVE OVEN BLOCK DIAGRAM

• The voltage induced • A half-wave doubler
in the secondary configuration is used
winding is about for the rectifier, with
2000 V (rms) at 250 a peak inverse
mA for normal voltage of about
domestic ovens 12000 V
• The high voltage • The bleeder capacitor
return circuit is (1 µF) should always
fastened directly to be discharged before
the chassis through touching anything
the transformer inside when the cover
frame is removed

MICROWAVE OVEN BLOCK DIAGRAM

• The thermal • Two types
protector is a PTC • The first type cooks by microwaves only
thermistor • while the second is a microwave convection oven
 21-10-2024

Features
• This quick method of cooking using a minimum quantity of water
helps retain most of the nutrients.
• Microwaving preserves natural flavours, while enhancing the
colour and texture of the food.
• Microwaves are attracted by the moisture in the food
• The microwaves then penetrate the food surface, causing the
moisture molecules to vibrate.
• This vibration generates heat which then cooks the food by
conduction. The food is cooked from the outer surface to the
inner core.

Top Load Washing Machine

Washing Machine
 21-10-2024

Front Load

Washing Cycle
• The push-button keyboard enables the desired program to be selected.
• The control—the microcomputer—checks first that the safety cut-out is in the ON position.
• The water is then admitted (valve opened) and the water level is constantly monitored. When the
required quantity of water has been provided the valve closes.
• The water temperature is measured and the heater is switched until the water reaches the
required temperature.
• In the meantime, the washing powder is admitted from a container and the hardness of water is
noted, at the same time the drum motor is switched on so that the dirty clothes are evenly
moved through the water.
• After the required time has elapsed, according to the selected program, the motor is switched to
high speed spinning and the suction pump is switched on to remove the washing water and the
rinsing water to waste.
• At the end of the washing cycle the machine switches off and provides a signal to indicate this.
 21-10-2024

Types
• Washer
• single tub machines that only wash
• semi-automatic
• washer dryer
Air Conditioners
• the controls are not fully automatic and manual
intervention is required
• Automatic
• no manual intervention is required during the
washing process

Components
• Air conditioning is the process of treating air in an internal • Most heating and cooling systems must have the following basic
environment to establish and maintain required standards of components:
• temperature, 1. A heating source that adds heat to a fluid (air, water, or steam).
• heating or cooling the air
2. A cooling source that removes heat from a fluid (air or water).
• humidity,
• adding (humidification) or removing (dehumidification) water vapour from the air 3. A distribution system (a network of ducts or piping) to carry the fluid to the
• cleanliness, rooms to be heated or cooled.
• controlled by either filtration, the removal of undesirable contaminants using filters or 4. Equipment (fans or pumps) for moving the air or water.
other devices 5. Devices (e.g., radiation) for transferring heat between the fluid and the
• or by ventilation, the introduction of outside air into the space which dilutes the
concentration of contaminants room.
• Motion
• air velocity and to where the air is distributed
 21-10-2024

All Water AC Systems All Water AC Systems

• Hydronic Heating • Hydronic Cooling

All Water AC Systems All Air AC Systems

• Hydronic HVAC
 21-10-2024

Room Air Conditioner

Room Air Conditioner

• In split units the indoor and outdoor sections of the room air
conditioner are separated out into two casings or units.
• The indoor unit consists of the evaporator coil, evaporator blower
with its own separate motor, capillary tube, control panel, air filter,
supply and return grills, etc.
• It is installed inside the room to be conditioned.
• It can be ceiling suspended, wall mounted, or kept on the floor as a
console unit and is generally known as fan coil unit.
 21-10-2024

• Assignment 3
• Find all the refrigerants/coolants that are used in AC historically till today
• List their advantages and shortcomings

• A refrigeration system extracts heat from a substance at a

temperature lower than the ambient and transfers the extracted heat

Refrigeration to the atmosphere at a temperature higher than the ambient.

• Food preservation, both for processing and storage, is one of the

significant applications of refrigeration.

• Food processing calls for chilling, freezing, quick freezing, or freeze

drying.
 21-10-2024

• Typical applications are the • Refrigerants are heat carrying mediums which during their cycle in
• domestic refrigerators and home freezers, the refrigeration system absorb heat at a low temperature level and
• ice cream manufacturing and storage, discard the heat so absorbed at a higher level
• drinking water coolers, beverage cooling, • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are composed of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon
• cold storages, process cooling of meat, fish, dairy products, fruits, vegetables, atoms. Some in this group are R11, R12, and R114.
transport refrigeration etc. • Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are composed of hydrogen, chlorine,
fluorine, and carbon atoms. Some in this group are R122 and R123.
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are composed of hydrogen, fluorine and carbon
• Refrigeration is very vital to the chilled and frozen-foods industry for atoms. Some of these are R134a and R125.
maintaining the cold chain i.e. a supply of such foods from the farm to
the consumer.

vapour compression refrigeration system vapour compression refrigeration system

• Process 1–2 : At point (1), the refrigerant • Process 2–3 : The refrigerant
is in the liquid state at a relatively high flows through a heat exchanger
pressure and high temperature.
called the evaporator.
• It flows to (2) through a restriction, called
the flow control device or expansion • This heat exchanger has two
device. circuits. The refrigerant circulates
• The refrigerant loses pressure going in one,
through the restriction. • and in the other, the fluid to be
• The pressure at (2) is so low that a small cooled (usually air or water)
portion of the refrigerant flashes flows.
(vaporises) into a gas.
• But in order to vaporise, it must gain • The fluid to be cooled is at a
heat (which it takes from the portion of slightly higher temperature than
the refrigerant that did not vaporise, the refrigerant, therefore heat is
thus cooling the mixture and resulting in transferred from it to the
low temperature at (2). refrigerant, producing the cooling
effect desired.
 21-10-2024

vapour compression refrigeration system vapour compression refrigeration system

• Process 3–4 : Leaving the • Process 4–1 : The refrigerant leaves
evaporator, the refrigerant is a the compressor as a gas at high
gas at a low temperature and low temperature and high pressure.
pressure. • In order to change it to a liquid, heat
• In order to be able to use it again must be removed from it. This is
to achieve the refrigerating effect accomplished in a heat exchanger
called the condenser.
continuously, it must be brought
back to the conditions at (1)–a • The refrigerant flows through one
liquid at a high pressure. circuit in the condenser. In the other
circuit, a cooling fluid flows (air or
• The first step in this process is to water) at a temperature lower than
increase the pressure of the that of the refrigerant.
refrigerant gas by using a • Heat therefore transfers from the
compressor. refrigerant to the cooling fluid, and
• Compressing the gas also results as a result, the refrigerant condenses
in increasing its temperature. to a liquid (1).

Domestic Refrigerators
 21-10-2024

Iron

Working
• Irons work by heating the molecules within the fabric so that they • Certain fabrics (like cotton) have molecular bonds that are more
become loose difficult to alter and are more difficult to iron.
• The weight of the pressure exerted on the iron flattens the fabric • These fabrics require high temperatures and more pressure than a fabric like
silk, which has relatively weak molecular bonds
• When the fabric cools it retains the new shape and will be wrinkle
free
• Irons have variable temperature setting so that same iron can be used
for different fabrics
 21-10-2024

heating
• Current is passed through a coil which gets red hot and transfers the
heat to the base plate.
• Two thin sheets of different metals (brass and steel) are
welded/riveted/brazed together to make the “bimetallic strip”
• Before heating the bimetallic strip is straight
• When heated brass expands more than steel, hence the strip bends
with brass on the outside
• This bend is used to make or break the electrical connection

• Some irons have steam capability that helps in loosening the bonds
more easily (especially for difficult-to-iron fabrics)

• Many irons are lightweight but a good one will be little heavy so as to
alleviate the need to press down

• Some come with Teflon coating that allows the iron to glide smoothly
over fabric
 21-10-2024

• Sole plate is usually made of aluminium with water resistant

treatment
• Steam is created by releasing water from water tank to the heated
plate. This water is run through pores
Digital Camera
• The water is vaporized immediately after it is released from pores in
the sole plate
 21-10-2024

• Main parts are lenses, aperture, shutter, electronics and image • Shutter controls the duration for which a scene is exposed onto the
sensor. sensor

• The lenses focus the light from the scene onto the sensor • Sensors are usually Charged Coupled Devices (CCD) or CMOS

• Aperture is a hole that can be made small or large to control the • On the surface of these chips are a grid containing millions of
amount of light that enters the camera photosensitive diodes called photo sites, photo elements or pixels

• More the pixels more details

Front End UI/

CCD/CMOS
Signal Graphic
Sensors
Processor Buttons
• Image sensor/front end processor
• In front end both CCD or CMOS image sensors convert light into electrons at
SDRAM photo sites
AF Shutter Motor Driver
• The analog signal from sensors is filtered, amplified and digitized by high
Flash speed A/D
Image Memory
Mono Headphone Clock Processor + • Digital Image Processor
MCU
Mono-Speaker Audio
SD/CF Card • Provides processing power to handle various industry standard,
Codec computationally intensive imaging, audio, and video algorithms.
Microphone
• It also controls the timing relationship of the vertical/horizontal reference
USB signals and pixel clock
TV Amp
LCD TFT LCD
Controller Display
 21-10-2024

• MCU
• Control UI, Performs general control such as system initialization,
configuration, graphical user interface and user commands
• Memory Photocopier
• Stores executing code and image data
• Peripheral Interface
• Video
• Audio
 21-10-2024

• Photocopier is a machine that makes paper copies of documents and

other visual images quickly and cheaply
• Most photocopiers use technique called as ‘xerography’, a dry process
using heat
• The entire process involves five steps:
1. Charge
2. Exposure
3. Development
4. Transfer and Separation
5. Fusing

• Charge • Charge
• A rotating cylinder usually called the drum (or • “Charge Corona”
photoconductor or photoreceptor) is coated with light • Parallel to the drum
sensitive semiconductor material such as selenium • Also known as corotron
• If a strong static charge is applied to the surface, the charge • Consist of pair of insulators with very fine wire of 60 micron stretched
will remain there as long as it is in darkness between them
• One end of the wire is connected to 6000 V DC supply
• If light strikes, the photon will combine with charge to form
electron hole pair. • The end is NOT connected to ground!
• This results in corona field. There is a faint blue glow
• The charge will flow to ground through aluminium base
• This field will cause the drum surface to be electrically charged
• The charge on the drum is induced by “Charge Corona” (about 700 V)
 21-10-2024

• Exposure • Exposure
• When a document is placed on the scanner glass bed and • This gives an effect called as “latent image”
copy button is pressed, bright light is turned on and moves
under the glass • The surface of drum has the mirror image of the document in
• In some machines the light is still and the paper moves the form of charge pattern
• The image of the document is reflected through a set of • Black – Charged, White - Discharged
mirrors and lens
• The image strikes the rotating drum, moving at the same
speed as surface of drum
• Wherever the light strikes on the drum the charge is
discharged
• Where no light strikes, remains charged

• Development • Development
• The drum is rotated past the developer unit • As the roller passes the drum, the charge on the drum
• It consist of roller, parallel to drum with magnets inside attracts the toner particles
• The roller rotates in a valley filled with developer material : • The developer particles stick to the roller due to magnets
iron fillings coated with plastic
• The toner is also introduced into the developer unit
• Toner are fine particles of black plastic
• The smaller toner particles stick to the sand like developer
material
• As developer roller rotates the magnets cause the developer
and toner sticks to the roller
 21-10-2024

• Transfer • Fusing
• In this step the image is applied to the paper • The toner particles are loosely held by the charge till now
• The electronics control when to feed the paper so as to meet • They need to be permanently fused to the paper
the drum at the exact time as place • This is done using heat and pressure
• As paper meets the drum, it passes over another corona unit • The paper is made to pass through a set of rollers
• This “transfer corona” will charge the paper in opposite • One of the rollers (upper) is hollow aluminium with non-stick
polarity of the drum material such as Teflon coated on the surface
• As the paper passes over the drum the toner particles now • It also has a 800 W quartz heater lamp inside it.
transfer onto the paper • Surface temperature is maintained at 350-390 F
• The paper is partially neutralized to separate it from the • The lower roller is solid made of silicone rubber
drum

• Fusing • Cleaning
• The two rollers are pressed tightly together by springs • The drum is discharged of any residual charge
• As paper passes through them, the heat causes the toner to • It is also scrapped for any residual toner by brush or blade
liquify and flow into the grain of the paper • This toner is either stored in waste toner compartment or routed to
• The pressure bonds the liquified toner to the paper the main toner box for reuse
 21-10-2024

• Facsimile means an exact reproduction.

• In facsimile transmission an exact reproduction of a document or
Fax Machine picture is provided at the receiving end.
• The small bandwidth required for facsimile makes it suitable for
transmission over normal telephone lines.

• Essentially, a fax machine scans original documents, converts the • When data is read from an
scanned images into electrical signals, and transmits them over input document it is first
telephone lines to a receiving fax machine. compressed
• The receiving fax machine in turn converts the received signals back • Then modulated on to an
into the graphical images of the original document and prints them audio-frequency carrier
prior to being coupled to the
line.
• The receive path is the
reverse of this.
 21-10-2024

Basic Group 3 fax machine operations Basic Group 3 fax machine operations
• The handshake process : • Scanning :
• The images on the page are scanned
• The sending and receiving fax- and transformed into analog signals to
modems set up begin the transmission process.
• Either a charge-coupled device or
• the transmission protocols, contact image sensor scanner scans the
• transmission speed, page being sent.
• A photo-sensor array of 1728 tiny
• and other settings between them sensors for A4 paper size (or 2048 for
• If one modem cannot transmit at B4) targets very small picture elements
(pixels) on a line of page, one sensor per
the highest speed of the other, pixel, resulting in 1728 (or 2048) bits per
line.
both modems agree to fall back • The array determines whether each
to the next highest speed at pixel is black or white and accordingly
which both modems can transmit generates a strong or weak electronic
signal for that pixel.
on the line.

Basic Group 3 fax machine operations Basic Group 3 fax machine operations
• Scanning : • A/D Conversion :
• A page is scanned line-by-line with
all the pixels in a thin strip from 0.13 • The scanner signals are converted
to 0.25 mm high across the top of from analog to digital with
the page, or between 10 and 12 scan typically from one to six bits per
lines per line of text.
• Successive strips are scanned until pixel.
the whole page is converted into a • After image processing is
series of electrical pulses.
• The amplitude of each pulse complete, one bit per pixel is
represents the brightness of the produced.
corresponding pixel.
• This scanning operation takes
between five and ten seconds per
page.
 21-10-2024

Basic Group 3 fax machine operations Basic Group 3 fax machine operations
• Video Processing : • Video Processing :
• The processing of the scanner • Shading compensation checks for
data can be done on the analog non uniformity in the scanner optical
scanner signal, the digital data, or system and corrects distortions due
both. to both, light sources as well as non
uniformity in the scanner element.
• It accommodates for the shading, • Thresholding :
distortions, and other aspects of • The conversion of the scanner output
the original image so that from grey level to a black-and-white
reproduction can be as accurate level must also be performed.
as possible. • It may include dithering (or half-
toning), a method of generating
pseudo-grey scales.

Basic Group 3 fax machine operations Basic Group 3 fax machine operations
• Video Processing : • Compressing the digital signals :
• Other video processing • The data compression operation
techniques include can reduce the picture
• automatic background correction, information by a factor of from 5
• automatic contrast control, to 20, depending on the
• edge enhancement and characteristics of the image.
• MTF (modulation transfer function) • This operation generates code
correction. words containing the pixel
• These can be performed in one or information in compressed digital
two dimensions. Images may also signals.
be reduced or enlarged.
 21-10-2024

Basic Group 3 fax machine operations Basic Group 3 fax machine operations
• Modulation : • At the receiving end :
• The compressed digital signals are • Demodulation :
modulated by the modem into
analog signals (a tone series) that • A modem demodulates or decodes
can be sent over regular telephone the received analog tone signals
lines. regenerating the digital signals (bit
• Group 3 fax machines are half streams) sent.
duplex and can either send or • Decompression :
receive at any time. • The next step is to expand the
• Transmission: digital signals and reconstruct the
page’s images into black-and-white
• The analog signals are then pixels which represent the pixel’s of
transmitted over the phone lines the page’s image
from the sending modem to the
receiving modem.

Basic Group 3 fax machine operations Basic Group 3 fax machine operations
• At the receiving end : • At the receiving end :
• Thermal printing: • Thermal printing:
• The thermal printer converts the
expanded bit stream into a copy of • Resolution : Standard resolution is
the original page. 203 lines per inch across and 98
• The printer’s wires are spaced 203 to lines per inch down the page.
the inch, touching the temperature- • Fine resolution requires twice the
sensitive recording paper. number of lines (196 lines per inch)
• For black marking, the wires heat up down the page.
when high current passes through
them. • Most group 3 fax machines include
• The wires go from non-marking a high resolution option.
(white) to marking (black)
temperature, and back again in a few
milliseconds.
 21-10-2024

GROUP 3 FAX MACHINES GROUP 3 FAX MACHINES

• Group 3 refers to the digital standard that ensures compatibility • They can send an average page of text in 10 to 30 seconds with about
among fax machines 15 seconds for the initial first page handshake.
• The Group 1 (1968) analog standard covered four and six minutes per • The time per page really depends on how many black markings (text
page fax machines and graphics images) are present, on their level of detail and on the
• Group 2 (1976) analog standard covered two and three minutes per compression scheme used.
page machines. • Group 4 fax machines, which transmit at 64,000 bps, will be suited to
• Group 3 (1980) calls for the ability to send an 8.5 × 11 inch page in computer controlled network communications.
approximately 30 seconds over a voice grade telephone line • First adopted in 1984, Group 4 fax machines are designed for
transmission over ISDN.

• Is a system by which one is able to control the performance of an

equipment placed at a distance.

Remote control • Functions include ON-OFF, volume, main tuning, picture contrast and
brightness adjustments etc.
• One of most popular remote control systems are those which employ
ultrasonic signals.
• The frequencies commonly used for remote control lie in the 40 kHz
range.
 21-10-2024

Ultrasonic Transducers
• The remote system has three main components— • One transducer is in the transmitter, i.e. in the hand-held remote
• A remote transmitter, control unit,
• a remote receiver and • converts a mechanical vibration into high-frequency sounds.
• The devices at the receiver to effect the change ordered by the remote • Another transducer is in the receiver
command.
• converts the high-frequency sounds into electrical signals which can be used
• These include motors, relays and, in the latest systems, electronic control devices.
for operating a control in the receiver.
• Two basic transmitter types are used
• Mechanical
• Electrical

Mechanical or “bonger type” Mechanical or “bonger type”

• Employs a cylindrical aluminium rod which vibrates in its longitudinal • A single rod of a specified length will produce a certain resonant
mode when struck frequency
• If such a rod is struck on one end by a hammer moving along its axis, • To control three or four functions within a television receiver, three or
it emits a sustained note which has a definite frequency. four rods of slightly different lengths have to be used
• For example, an aluminium rod 2½” long has a fundamental resonant • In a typical transmitter, the working parts include a hammer and a
frequency of about 40 kHz.
steel cylinder weighing about 2½ grams located at one end of the
• The internal damping of the aluminium rod is so slight that a large cylindrical rod
part of the vibrational energies is radiated.
 21-10-2024

Mechanical or “bonger type” Mechanical or “bonger type”

• When a button is pressed, the hammer is pushed away from the rod • Once the rod is struck and the energy transmitted, it is essential to
by the force of a spring. dampen the remaining energy as quickly as possible.
• As the button is pressed further, the spring is suddenly released and • For this purpose, a mechanical damping method is employed
the hammer strikes the rod. • In this method, damping is achieved by a small piece of spring wire, covered
by a plastic sleeve, which protrudes through the mounting and touches the
• Usually, if more than one hammer is employed, the difference in rod.
frequencies of the various rods may be to the tune of 1000 Hz or • When the button is pressed, the damper is withdrawn and when it is
more. released, the sleeve again makes contact with the rod.
• Once the rod is struck and the energy transmitted, it is essential to
dampen the remaining energy as quickly as possible.
• For this purpose, a mechanical damping method is employed

Mechanical or “bonger type” Mechanical or “bonger type”

• In the receiver, the ultrasonic energy is picked up by a crystal type • Two thin rectangular wafers of barium titanate are
microphone using a barium titanate crystal element. combined together.
• This material, when cut in the form of a small bar or plate, is • The conducting electrode silver, is applied at both the
mechanically strained by the sound waves. ends of the wafers.
• Conversely, when a voltage is applied across the two electrodes, the • These electrodes are shown by the dark portion on both ends of
the assembly.
barium titanate gets mechanically strained.
• This is the well known piezoelectric effect. • Between the two wafers, at the nodal points of vibration,
two thin metal strips are cemented which serve as
electrical contacts and as a mechanical suspension.
 21-10-2024

Mechanical or “bonger type” Mechanical or “bonger type”

• To broaden the response of this transducer, a small U- • cross-section of the entire microphone
• On the left end, a supporting piece is present which carries the
shaped piece of aluminium is added to the assembly, barium titanate wafers on the two thin metal strips mentioned earlier.
• This makes the microphone behave like two tuned circuits • Next comes the aluminium bridge, to which the wafers are joined
together with a plastic piece, and a rectangular window which fits
coupled together. closely around it.
• Beyond the bridge, there exists a space equal in length to a quarter of
• It enables ultrasonic frequencies from 37.75 kHz to 41.25 wavelength at about 40 kHz.
kHz to be picked up and converted into their equivalent • Finally, after this space, comes a two inches long rectangular horn.
electrical signals • A quarter-wave section may be thought of as a transformer to match a
load of ZR ohms to a source of ZS ohms.
• Such a match can be obtained if the characteristic impedance Ro of
the quarter wave section satisfies the relation 𝑅 = √ 𝑍 𝑍
• Both the one-quarter wavelength space and the horn serve to match
the impedance of the barium titanate assembly to the air.

Electrical Type - FREQUENCY SIGNAL

Mechanical or “bonger type”
ENCODING
• The combination of the mechanical transmitter, the
microphone and the amplifier in this system, provides
enough sensitivity to make aiming of the transmitter
quite unnecessary in most of the horns.
• The sound reflected from the floor, walls, ceiling or
furniture makes it possible to operate the receiver
controls with the transmitter in almost any desired
position — held in the hand or resting on a table or chair.
• The line of sight and the approximate aiming of the
transmitter become important only at the maximum
range—a distance of 40 feet — which is rarely needed.
 21-10-2024

Electrical Type - FREQUENCY SIGNAL Electrical Type - FREQUENCY SIGNAL

ENCODING ENCODING
• In the system the transmitter uses two separate oscillators. • A modulating signal amplitude
• One of the oscillator generates modulates any one of the four carrier
• a carrier wave and frequencies depending upon the
• the other, a modulating signal
remote operation required.
• By a slight variation in the tuning circuit, the carrier oscillator can • In this way, one would be able to
produce four or more different frequencies, select any of the 16 frequency
• e.g. 35.43 kHz, 38.29 kHz, 41.15 kHz and 44.01 kHz.
combinations for transmission by a 4
× 4 matrix of push button switches.
• Similarly, the other oscillator, for generating modulating signal, can
produce 148 Hz, 193 Hz, 254 Hz or 333 Hz. • Each frequency combination
represents a specific instruction.

Electrical Type - FREQUENCY SIGNAL Electrical Type - FREQUENCY SIGNAL

ENCODING ENCODING
• A narrow bandpass filter (F1) allows only • On leaving F2–F5, the desired signal is
those signals whose frequencies lie rectified by one of the four detectors D1–
D4.
within 35 kHz to 45 kHz range
• It is then applied without H.F. filtering to any
• All such signals are then applied to four one of the detector-integrators D5 to D8,
more narrow band-pass filters (F2 to F5), and to the signal-combiner unit.
• only one of which will allow the • Since a detector integrator can produce an
output only if it receives the correct input, a
frequency, already accepted by F1, to rectified signal at the input of a particular
pass. detector-integrator produces a dc signal at
• Thus, these filters act as signal sorts its output.
ensuring that the desired signal is always • This signal is applied to the appropriate
routed to its correct terminal on the terminal of the matrix decoder as a carrier
identifier.
matrix decoder.
 21-10-2024

Electrical Type - FREQUENCY SIGNAL Electrical Type - FREQUENCY SIGNAL

ENCODING ENCODING
• It is now necessary to determine which • These dc signals are applied to the
of the four possible modulating appropriate terminals of the matrix
frequencies is being applied to the
identified carrier. decoder as modulation identifiers.
• This is the purpose of the signal • From these two identifiers the matrix
combiner and of the four filters F6 to F9. decoder produces a signal at one of
• Only one of these filters will allow the its 16 output terminals.
modulating signal of the received carrier
to pass,
• and so only one of the four possible
modulating signals will be allowed to
reach the detector integrator, D9–D12.

Electrical Type - PULSE POSITION Electrical Type - PULSE POSITION

MODULATION ENCODING MODULATION ENCODING
• Pulse position modulation (PPM) encoding is the system where
encoding is carried out by positioning the pulses.
• In the PPM method of signal encoding, the transmitted signal takes
the form of a binary coded word formed from a succession of short
bursts of ultrasound.
• Here the frequency of ultrasound is 40 kHz.
 21-10-2024

Electrical Type - PULSE POSITION Electrical Type - ENCODING BY TIME RATIO

MODULATION ENCODING DISCRIMINATION
• a regular train of six ultrasonic pulses, each of duration 3 ms, is • Time ratio discrimination (TRD) is also known as
repeated at 27 ms intervals. pulse width modulation (PWM)
• The separation rate is therefore 1000/27 or 37 Hz and the separation • Every bit of transmitted word is allocated a
time from trailing edge to leading edge is 24 ms. period of time within which the burst of
ultrasound representing the bit must be
• Suppose that the pulse separation interval of less than 20 ms is transmitted.
recognised by the receiver as binary-1 and more than 20 ms • The actual duration of the transmitted bit is then
recognised as binary-0. expressed as a percentage of the allocated bit
• Six equally spaced ultrasonic bursts with spacing interval greater than period, and the different percentages which
20 ms represent five-bit binary code 0 and therefore identified by the result are used to represent binary-0 and binary-
1.
notation 00000.

REMOTE CONTROL TRANSMITTER REMOTE CONTROL TRANSMITTER

• SAA–5000A is a MOS N- • It utilises the TRD method of word
encoding.
channel IC which provides
the encoding and • It transmits a 24 bit code for every
transmitted command.
modulation function for • It consists of a 7 bit “Start-Code”
the remote control of followed by a 5 bit “Message”.
television receivers • At the end of the message code, all the
12 bits of “start” and “message” code
• It provides 32 commands are retransmitted but this time with
which are activated by their individual bits inverted.
switch controls on the • Thus, the total transmitted word
keyboard matrix. consists of 24 sequential bits, the last
12 of which are mirror images or
• The IC is connected to this complements of the first 12.
keyboard by six matrix • The entire transmitted 24 bit word is
repeated till the switch of the keypads
outputs and six matrix remains depressed.
inputs.
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REMOTE CONTROL TRANSMITTER REMOTE CONTROL TRANSMITTER

• The advantage of sending • The transmitter accepts data from the
32-keypads and coverts it into a 24–bit
12 bit “start” and TRD-encoded word.
“message” code followed • The encoded data appears as a
by 12 bit sequential switching waveform at pin 16
“complementary code” is of the IC.
that the receiver is easily • It is used to turn ON and OFF the stable
able to distinguish the multivibrator, formed by the two
transistors Q1 and Q2 and the
required code from associated components.
external noise. • When the multivibrator is turned ON, it
operates at a frequency of 40 kHz and is
used to drive the ultrasonic transducer.

REMOTE CONTROL TRANSMITTER

• The bit period of the encoded word is
determined by an oscillator within the IC
whose operating frequency is set by the

Risograph
220 kΩ resistor and 1000 pF capacitor
connected externally to pins 2 and 3.
• With the values shown in Fig., the bit
period would be about 82 ms but it can
be varied over the range 0.8 ms to 10
ms.
• Pin 17 of the IC is shown connected to
pin 1, which in turn, is connected to the
negative electrode of the internal
battery. This puts the IC into ultrasonic
operating mode.
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Making the master

• Risograph is a brand of digital duplicators manufactured by the Riso • The RISOGRAPH uses a printing technique that makes an original master by
making microscopic holes in the master with thermal heads and passing ink
Corporation through them to create an image.
• Designed mainly for high-volume photocopying and printing • The thermal heads are fitted with small heat-generating elements arranged
in parallel in their substrates
• Can be color or black and white • These elements are electrically activated on the basis of the data to be
• It is typically far less expensive per page than a conventional printed, and thereby make microscopic holes in the original master.
photocopier, laser printer, or inkjet printer • Ink has the property of softening in hot conditions and hardening when it is
cold.
• Can achieve both very high speed (typically 150 pages per minute) • In order to ensure uniform printing quality despite changes in ink
• A good lifespan for a risograph might involve making 100,000 masters properties, the thermal heads are automatically controlled electronically to
open the holes at a microscopic scale.
and 5,000,000 copies.
 21-10-2024

Printing Drum
• Ink from the ink bottles inside the print
drum is extruded onto the squeegee rollers
to create a pool of ink, which is
automatically maintained at the proper
quantity.
• The outer surface of the print drum is
covered with a plate cylinder, which is
covered with many holes, and two mesh
screens.
• Ink is supplied to the perforated master
evenly using this mechanism.
• The paper fed in at high speed is pressed
from the bottom of the drum to transfer a
proper volume of ink to the paper, allowing
clear printing with less offset.

RISO Problems
• Registration errors
• As each color is layered separately, it is unlikely that Risograph prints will have perfectly
aligned colors.
• Ink transparency
• While Risograph ink is translucent and allows for layering to create new colors and effects, it
can appear slightly transparent, particularly on darker paper stocks.
• Uneven ink coverage
• Large areas of solid ink coverage may appear uneven, hence it is recommended to set the
opacity at 75% MAX.
• Smudging
• Risograph ink, akin to newspaper ink, will never fully dry, leaving prints susceptible to
smudging.
• Roller marks
• The paper feed rollers may pick up ink from a previous print and leave roller marks on the
subsequent print, adding to the print's uniqueness.