NAME…………………………………

ADMISSION NO……………………
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
- This is the process by which respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon IV Oxide)
are passed across the respiratory surfaces. Basically gaseous exchange is
involved in respiration and photosynthesis. Gaseous exchange in unicellular
organisms like amoeba occur trough diffusion. Also in lower animals like
earthworms is through diffusion because they have large surface area to volume
ratio. Higher animals that have large volumes to their surface areas, diffusion
alone cannot be enough for gaseous exchange and therefore they need an
elaborate system that can adequately serve them. Therefore these large
multicellular animals have special surface for gaseous exchange called
respiratory surfaces.

Importance gaseous exchange

- It promotes oxygen intake for respiration in living organism
- It facilitates carbon IV oxide removal from the body. Accumulation of large
amounts of carbon IV oxide in the tissues is toxic to cells.
- Enables green plants to obtain carbon IV Oxide for photosynthesis
- Excess water is expelled from the plants through transpiration. Higher animals
expel it partly in its gaseous form i.e. water vapor in the exhaled air.

Gaseous exchange in plants

- It involves two main respiratory gases i.e. CO2 and O2
- CO2 taken in is used for photosynthesis and O2 produced as a by-product of
photosynthesis is released into the atmosphere.
- However some of O2 produced is used in the same plant for respiration. But
since the rate of photosynthesis proceeds faster than respiration at daytime,
excess O2 produced is removed.
- At night respiration proceeds in the absence of photosynthesis in green plants
hence plants take in O2 for respiration but give out CO2.
In flowering plants gaseous exchange can occur either in roots, stems or leaves
through diffusion. In roots, gaseous exchanges occur through diffusion through
breathing roots or pneumatophores (in halophytes i.e plants growing in salt
areas e.g. mangroof trees), root hairs and lenticels that are in roots.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 In stems, gaseous exchange occur in woody plants through structures called
lenticels. In leaves, gaseous exchange occurs through the cuticle, the epidermal
cells or the stomata.
NB: Gaseous exchanges in terrestrial plants mainly occur through stomata.
Question
1. State five structures in plants through which gaseous exchanges occur.
(5mks)
Stomata , lenticels, pneumatophores, cuticle, root hairs, epidermal cells

2. Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in terrestrial plants.

(20mks)

Terrestrial plants- These are plant growing on land under ordinary soil conditions.
Gaseous exchange occurs in the following structures;
Stomata and Spongy mesophyll
CO2 and O2 diffuse in and out of the leaf through the stomata. Most of the gaseous
exchange occurs through the spongy mesophyll. During the day air diffuses into
large air spaces of spongy mesophyll through stomata. The carbon iv oxide in the
air diffuses into the photosynthesis oxygen is produced. Some of the oxygen
diffuses out of the leaf through stomata. During the night air diffuses out of air
spaces of spongy mesophyll. The air dissolves into film of [Link] oxygen in
the air diffuses into cells and is used in respiration during which carbon iv oxide is
produced. The carbon iv oxide diffuses out of the leaf through stomata due to
diffusion/concentration gradient. At night carbon iv oxide accumulates in the leaf
since photosynthesis does not take place.
The rapid gaseous exchange through the leaves is due to: numerous stomata that
increase the volume of diffusing gases, the large air spaces within the spongy
mesophyll layer which increase the surface area for gaseous exchange.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
Internal structure of a leaf

Cuticle and epidermis

Epidermis is the outer layer of the pant leaves, stems and roots. The epidermal
layer is one cell thick. This reduces the distance over which the gases diffuse.
Cuticles are also very thin to reduces the distance over which the gases diffuse.
Oxygen which is at higher concentration in the atmosphere or soil diffuses into the
plant tissues through the epidermis of the young stems and roots, thus gaseous
exchange only occurs through the epidermis in young stems and roots.
Gaseous exchange through lenticels
Lenticels are openings on woody stems formed due to loosely packed cork cells.
Stems of woody terrestrial trees and shrubs have areas of loosely arranged cork
cells with large areas of air spaces between them.. Lenticels are formed when the
epidermis is replaced by the bark. Lenticels appear scattered on the surface of the
stem as well as raised openings. They allow gaseous exchange of O2 and CO2
between the atmosphere and internal tissues of the stem through diffusion.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
In halophytes which grow in muddy salty areas e.g. mangroves, lenticels are found
in specialized breathing roots called pneumatophores.

Gaseous exchange through the roots

The roots of young terrestrials plants exchange gases through root hairs, cuticles,
lenticels and epidermis. The epidermal layer of the ficus roots is thin. Oxygen and
carbon (IV) oxide dissolved in soil solution and air spaces found in soil diffuse into
and out of these structures of roots.

Gaseous exchange in aquatic plants

- CO2 and O2 gases are dissolved in water in which aquatic plants grow. Aquatic
plants may either be submerged, emergent or floating.

Submerged plants
- They obtain carbon dioxide and oxygen from water by diffusion through the
epidermis. They don’t have stomata.
- Their leaves are generally thin with large air spaces and lack cuticle e.g. Elodea
spp and ceratopyllum and spirogyra.
- They are able to carry out photosynthesis under low carbon dioxide
concentration. Their chloplsts are very sensitive to low light intensity.
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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Emergent plants
- These are plants whose roots are firmly anchored on substratum such as a rock.
The rest of the plant emerges from the water e.g. potomageton, nymphae,
reeds and sedges.
- These plants have most of their stomata on the upper surface of their leaves.
In some cases e.g. Nymphae the stomata are on the upper side only.
- The plant tissues are made up of cells with thin walls of large air spaces called
aerenchyma tissue which is found in stems and leaves. A lot of air is stored in
the aerenchyma tissue making the stem and leaves of the plant buoyant.
- Gaseous exchange occurs through the stomata. The aerenchyma tissue
provides a large surface area over which gaseous exchange takes place.

Floating plants
- They are those plants whose roots hang freely in water while the leaves float.
- They have their stomata on the upper surface of leaves, gaseous exchange
occurs through the stomata e.g. water hyacinth, Salvia molesta, water fern,
water lily, water lettuce, duck weed.

NB The roots of these plants have aerenchyma tissue that enables plants to
float.
Gaseous exchange in plants found in marine water and estuaries
- Some plants growing in waterlogged soil develop breathing roots. The roots
emerge from the soil. The roots are called pneumatophores.
- Gaseous exchange occurs through the epidermis e.g. white mangrove (Avicania
spp)

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
Structure and function of stomata

- Stomata are tiny pores scattered on the surface of the leaf.

- Stoma comprise of a stomatal pore and two specialized guard cells -curved
sausage-shaped (bean shaped).
- Two guard cells join at the end walls to make a pore in the middle

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
- The guard cells are structurally adapted to their function by;
(i) Having chloroplasts for photosynthesis
(ii) The uneven thickness of their cell walls i.e. the outer walls of the guard
cells is thin and stretches easily. The inner wall is thicker and does not
easily stretch. This controls the opening and closing of the stoma.

Functions of the stomata

-Gaseous exchange
-Transpiration

Mechanism of opening and closing stomata

It is explained by three theories i.e. the photosynthetic theory, starch-
sugar inter-conversion (PH) theory and mineral ion concentration
theory.
Usually in the presence of light, stomatal pores open. They close during
darkness.
The opening and closing of the stomatal pores is due to a change in
turgidity of guard cells surrounding the pores combined with the uneven
thickness of their cell walls. When guard cells are turgid the stomatal
pores opens, when they are flaccid the pore closes.

Photosynthetic theory
- In the presence of light the guard cells carry out photosynthesis using the
chloroplast. The accumulation of sugar in their cytoplasm, thus increasing
osmotic pressure in the guard cells and so water from adjacent cells enters
into guard cells by osmosis.
- This leads to an increase in turgidity of guard cells which then curve more on
outer thin wall due to their uneven thickness and cause the stomatal pore to
open.
- At night, the guard cells cease to photosynthesize. The glucose in the guard
cells are converted into starch which is osmotically inactive. Their osmotic
pressure and so water leaves the guard cells to the adjacent epidermal cells,
which then makes guard cells become flaccid and draw towards each other
causing pore to close.
NB: This theory has been found insufficient since there are plants that
close their stomata at day time and pen them at night.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Starch –sugar interconversion theory
- The starch- sugar conversion theory is under the influence of PH through
enzyme action e.g. during the day photosynthesis take place in guard cells
using CO2. Due to decrease of CO2, the PH in the guard cells tends to increase
hence becomes less acidic. This less acidic condition favours the conversion of
starch into glucose. The glucose being more osmotically active brings about an
osmotic effect that result in water being drawn into the guard cells.
Consequently the guars cells become turgid and bulge outwards making the
stomata to open.
- At night CO2 is not used up because photosynthesis doesn’t take place hence PH
decreases thus favouring the conversion of glucose into starch. Starch is
osmotically inactive and therefore the guard cells do not gain water. Due to the
resulting flaccid state of guard cells the stomata close.

The potassium ions theory/K+ theory

- Guard cells have chloroplasts hence in the presence of light ATP is produced
- ATP drives a K+ pump on guard cell membrane which actively transports K+
from adjacent epidermal cells into guard cells
- The accumulation of potassium ions raises osmotic pressure of guard cells
- Guard cells absorb water from the adjacent epidermal cells becoming turgid
- The inner walls are thicker than the outer walls so the outer walls stretch more
than the inner walls causing the guard cells to stretch outwards and stomata
open
- In absence of light (at night) ATP rapidly decreases so that there is no energy to
sustain the potassium ions pump
- Potassium ions migrate by diffusion from the guard cells to the adjacent
epidermal cells
- This lowers the osmotic pressure of guard cells which lose water to the
adjacent epidermal cells becoming flaccid
- The thinner outer walls of the guard cells shrink and the curvature of the thicker
inner walls reduces thus closing the stomata

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES

 Activity 1: To investigate presence of stomata on leaves

Materials
- Water in a beaker
- Leaves of various plants
- Bunsen burner
Procedure
- Heat the water to boiling point. Turn off the burner and wait for the water to
stop boiling.
- Immerse a leaf into the hot water and notice the air bubbles emerging from the
leaf.
- Repeat the procedure using other leaves
- Compare the average numbers of air bubbles from the upper and lower
epidermis of different leaves.
-
Leaf No. of bubbles
A
B
C

Activity 2: To investigate the shape of guard cells and distribution of stomata

on leaves

Materials
- Clear nail varnish
- Microscope
- Cover slip
- Forceps
- Microscope slide
- Leaves of various plants (maize)
- Beans, hibiscus, zebrine, water lily

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Procedure
- Apply a thin coat of clear nail varnish on the upper and lower epidermis of a
leaf, let it dry
- Peel off the varnish off the leaf using a pair of forceps.
- Place the varnish with the imprint of stomata on a microscope slide.
- Add a drop of water and gently lower a cover slip on the specimen
- Observe the specimen under the microscope starting with the low power
objective lens and then shift to the medium power objective lens.
- Note the arrangement of the guard cells
- Count the number of stomata in the field of view under the medium power
objective lens.
- Plant - Number of stomata - Likely habitat
- - Upper - Lower -
epidermis epidermis
- Water lily - - -
- Maize - - -
- Zebrina - - -
- Tradescantia - - -
- Hibiscus - - -

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS

Types of respiratory surfaces in animals

Type Of Environment or Example of an

Respiratory medium of organism
Surface operation
- Cell membrane - Water - Amoeba
- Gill filaments - Water - Fish
- Tracheoles - Air - insects
- Alveoli/ lungs - Air - Mammals, birds,
frogs, reptiles
- Skin - Water, - Frog
- air - earthworm
- Buccal cavity - air - frog

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
- Respiratory surface is the basic unit of any breathing system upon which
gaseous exchange takes place by diffusion. For gaseous exchange to take place
effectively, respiratory surfaces must have the following characteristics.

Characteristics of respiratory surfaces

- Covered with a thin epithelium (membrane) to reduce the distance over which
gases diffuse across.
- It’s moist to dissolve gases as they diffuse across it.
- It has a large surface area for maximum gaseous exchange ( more absorption
of gases)
- It should posses a rich(dense) capillary network( highly vasculized) to
quickly transport gases to and from cells

Mechanism of gaseous exchange in Protozoa

- These are single- celled organisms e.g. Amoeba, plasmodium ,Trypanasoma

e.t.c. These are microscopic organisms
- They are mainly found in water or in the body fluids of other organisms. The
respiratory surface of protozoa is the cell membrane. Gaseous exchange occurs
across the cell membrane directly by diffusion because they posses large
surface area to their volume ratio and therefore diffusion alone is enough.
- Due to the respiration the concentration of carbon dioxide inside the unicellular
organisms is higher than that in the surrounding water, therefore carbon
dioxide diffuses out of organisms into the surrounding. The concentration of
oxygen is higher in the surrounding water than inside the organism. Oxygen
therefore diffuses from the surrounding water into the organism.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Gaseous exchange in insects
- The respiratory system in insects is called the tracheal system; it consists of
spiracles, trachea and tracheoles.
- The spiracles are found only on the sides of the thorax and abdomen. There
are no spiracles on the head.
- The spiracles have a muscular valve which can be opened or closed to regulate
the flow of air.
- There are also hairs in the spiracle which prevent excessive loss of water by
evaporation from the tissues.
- The spiracles open into large tracheal tubes called tracheae (singular trachea).
These tubes are strengthened with spiral bands of chitin to keep them open at
all times.
- There are several large air sacs which are connected to tracheal tubes, which act
as reservoirs.
- The tracheae are subdivided into microscopic tubes called tracheoles.
Tracheoles penetrate the body tissues and are in direct contact with all the
living cells. They lack the spiral bands of chitin and their ends are filled with a
fluid. Those ends act as respiratory surfaces between the cells and the
tracheoles.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
Inspiration (breathing in) in a grasshopper
- During inspiration (breathing in) air enters the body of the insect. Inspiration
takes place when the internal muscles in the abdomen of the grasshopper relax.
This makes the abdomen and the tracheal system to expand and increase in
volume.
- The pressure of the tracheal system decreases compared to that of the
atmosphere. This causes air to be sucked into the tracheal tubes via the spiracles
in the thorax which are open at the time. This air travels through to the
Tracheoles.
- Oxygen from the air dissolves in the fluid in the tracheoles diffuses directly into
the cells. Carbon (IV) oxide which is at a higher concentration in the cells than
in the Tracheoles diffuses into the tracheoles and passes to the trachea and
finally comes out through the spircles.
Expiration (breathing out) in a grasshopper
- In order to expel the used air, internal muscles in the abdomen of the
grasshopper contract and compress the abdomen. This causes a compression of
the tracheal system. This reduces the volume and increased pressure in the
tracheal system thus forcing air (CO2) out of the system through the spiracles.
- In the grasshopper the four anterior (front) spiracles close while six pairs of
posterior spiracles open so that air flows from the front to the rear end and then
out of the insect.
- Insects which live in water also carry out gaseous exchange in water. Insects
such as the dragonfly or fly larvae (nymphs) use tracheal gills that are seen as
paired plates on either side of the abdomen.
- However most of the aquatic insects have an elaborate tracheal system and are
not truly aquatic because they need to come to the surface to breathe e.g.
mosquito larvae have the spiracles near the rectum carried on a tube called
respiratory siphon.
- The siphon is opened when the larva comes to the surface of the water to take in
air and closed by valves when the larva submerges. Larvae come to the surface
of water periodically to breathe and position themselves.
- In the pupa stage, a pair of siphons open just behind the head, pierce through
the water surface to allow for gaseous exchange.
- Some adult insect like water beetles and water bugs use bubbles of air trapped
by hairs. The air bubbles give these insects a silvery appearance.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
- Some insects use the respiratory device, plastron for gaseous exchange. A
plastron is a pile of very fine non- washable hairs which cover the cuticle for
some distance around the spiracle to hold off water and also maintain a film of
air over the body surface.
Question
A form two student wanted to kill a cockroach by immersing its head in water
for thirty minutes. Explain why the cockroach could not drawn?
Gaseous exchange in a fish (bony fish)
- In a bony fish the respiratory structures are the gills.
- The bony fish has four gills on each side of the body
- The gills are located inside a cavity in the head region known as operculum
cavity
- Each side of the fish has an operculum cavity which has an opening to the
outside of the fish called operculum opening.
- The gills are protected by an operculum on both sides of the body near the
head.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
- The gills of a fish consist of a long curved bony structure called gill bar. It
provides attachment to the gill filaments and gill rakers.
- Gill rakers- they are teeth like structures. They prevent food and other solid
materials in water from reaching the delicate filaments.
- Gill filaments – they are thin folded membranes. The filaments are highly
vasculized (contain dense network of capillaries) hence filaments are richly
supplied with blood for quick transportation of gases. Each gill filament sub
divides into gill lamellae
- The two rows of gill filaments provide a large surface area for gaseous
exchange.
Mechanism of gaseous exchange in the gills of a bony fish.
Inspiration:
Inspiration causes water to flow into the mouth cavity. The process below brings
water into the mouth cavity
- The mouth opens
- Muscular contractions in the mouth lower the floor of the mouth. This increases
volume in the mouth cavity and decreases the pressure inside it.
- The water outside is at a higher pressure and it rushes in through the open
mouth.
- Each operculum on the side of the fish bulges outwards by muscular action.
This increases the volume in the operculum cavity and lowers the pressure
there. Water rich in oxygen from the mouth is sucked into the opercular cavity.
Meanwhile the operculum is closed to prevent water outside the fish from
entering through the operculum.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Expiration

Expiration causes water to flow over the gills during expiration. The process is
as described below;

- The mouth closes

- The floor of the mouth is raised. This reduces the pressure in the mouth cavity
and increases the pressure.
- The operculum presses inwards by muscular action.
- The volume in the operculum cavity reduces thus increasing its pressure.
- The free edge of the operculum moves away from the body wall of the fish to
open the operculum cavity.
- Water rushes from the operculum cavity and flows out of the fish via the
operculum opening.

Exchange of gases between the water and gill filaments

- Gaseous exchange in fish takes place on the gill filament as water passes over
the gills.
- Blood in the capillaries in the gill filaments has a lower concentration of O2
than the water entering the mouth. Therefore O2 diffuses from the water flowing
over the gill filaments into the blood through the thin walls of the capillaries.
- On the other hand blood in the capillary has higher concentration of CO2 than
the water entering the mouth cavity. Therefore CO2 diffuses from the blood
through the walls of the capillaries into the water flowing over the gill
filaments.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
- In order to have maximum gaseous exchange between the blood in the gill
filaments and the flowing water a steep concentration gradient must be
maintained across the respiratory surfaces. This is achieved by the flow of water
and blood in opposite directions. This is called counter current flow system.
- As the movement of blood and water continues in opposite directions within the
respiratory surface, O2 diffuses out of the water into the blood and CO2 from
the blood leaves the respiratory surface into the water. By the time the blood
leaves the respiratory surface, it has as much O2 as the amount that was in the
water. This is so because water moves along, less and less O2 diffuses out of it
as blood becomes more and more concentrated with O2.

NB: reasons why fish cannot live in air

- When out of water, the gill filaments stick together. This reduces the surface
area compared to when its in the water hence gaseous exchange is more
efficient in water….
- In air, the moisture evaporates fast from the gill filaments. Since gaseous
exchange requires moist surfaces, the diffusion of O2 and CO2 cannot take
place.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
Gaseous exchange in amphibians

- Amphibians by nature they both live in land and in water. This double
habitation calls for special adaptation in gaseous exchange. The respiratory
structures are:
- Buccal cavity
- Lungs
- Skin

 Buccal (mouth) cavity

- Air is taken or expelled from the mouth cavity by raising and lowering the floor
of the mouth.
- The lining of the mouth cavity is moist and O2 from the air dissolves in it.
- Under the lining of the mouth, there is a rich supply of blood capillaries and
O2 diffuses into the blood and is carried by haemoglobin to all parts of the
body.
- CO2 from the tissues is brought by the blood to the mouth cavity where it
diffuses out.

 Lungs
- When the nostrils are closed the air can be forced into the lungs by the pumping
action of the floor of the mouth.
- The air reaches the alveoli sacs of the lungs that are well supplied with blood
through a large network of blood capillaries.
- The O2 in the air dissolve into the moist inner lining of the alveoli. It then
diffuses into the blood across the wall of the capillaries, combines with
haemoglobin in the RBC and is transported to all parts of the body.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
- The Co2 from the tissues is carried by the blood and diffuses into the alveoli
then pumped out by the pumping action of the mouth cavity.
 Skin
- Frogs have thinner and moist skin than the toads. Beneath the skin there is a
large network of blood capillaries. O2 from the air and from the water diffuses
through the skin into the bloodstream.
- CO2 in the blood diffuses out of the blood capillaries through the moist skin
into the surrounding water and air.
- Toads do not use the skin surface for gaseous exchange normally except when
they are hibernating.
Mechanism of gaseous exchange in mammals

- The respiratory system (breathing system) in mammals consists of the

following parts: nostril, Pharynx /Throat, Larynx /Voice box, Trachea
/wind pipe, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Alveoli, Lungs,
Thoracic cavity, Thorax

Nose

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
- The nose has two openings called nostrils which let in air into the air passages
(nasal cavity).
- Function of nasal cavity
- Nasal cavity is lined with mucus secreting cells and hairs-like structures called
cilia. The mucus and cilia filter and trap dust and micro-organisms from the air.
So particles are prevented from entering the lungs.
- Air is warmed and moistened in the nasal cavity.
- The lining of the nasal cavity also has chemoreceptor cells sensitive to detect
and distinguish different types of smell for survival purposes.

Question;
Explain why it is advisable to breath through the nostrils than the mouth.

Pharynx /Throat
- It’s that part where the mouth cavity and the nasal cavity meet.
Larynx /Voice box
- It’s a hollow box- like structure. It’s noticeable externally by the projection at
the front of the throat (Adams apple).
- The pharynx connects with the larynx through a slit-like opening called the
glottis.
- The glottis has a gap known as epiglottis which closes when a person is
swallowing to prevent food from entering the trachea.
- Choking and coughing are reflex actions which remove any foreign particles
which accidentally enter the trachea.
- Just below the glottis there are two membranous cords called vocal cords. The
vibrations of these cords caused by the movement of air out of the lungs during
exhalation, results in the production of sound.
Trachea /wind pipe
- It’s made up of rings of cartilage to ensure it does not collapse (or to keep it
open always) during breathing. Also they enable the tubes to be stretched e.g.
during coughing.
- It is a hollow tube to allow passage of air into the lungs.
- The incomplete rings (c-shaped) have gaps on the side facing the oesophagus
which allow smooth swallowing.
- The inner lining of the trachea has mucus to trap and filter micro-organisms
and dust particles preventing them from entering the lungs.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
- The trachea is lined with cilia which beat in waves and move mucus and other
foreign particles upwards into the pharynx. From the pharynx the foreign matter
is expelled from the air passages by spitting or swallowing.

Question;
Explain three ways in which the trachea is adapted to perform its
functions.
- NB: cigarette smoke is known to inhibit the action of cilia in the respiratory
tract. The result is accumulation of dust particles, bacteria and mucus.
- The bacteria may invade the cells of the mucous membrane causing diseases.
As a result smokers get frequent respiratory tract infection.
- Also smokers cough frequently as the body tries to get rid of the accumulated
mucus and other material
Bronchi
- The trachea branches into the tubes called bronchi (sing. bronchus). They are
similar to trachea except that they are narrower and have other materials.
Bronchioles
- Each bronchus enters a lung and extensively branches into narrow tubes called
bronchioles.
- Bronchioles have no rings of cartilage and each bronchiole end up into a tiny
sac called alveolus (plural alveoli) hence the spongy nature of lungs.

Alveoli
- The walls of epithelium are composed of thin and flat epithelium

Structural adaptation of alveoli

- They provide a very large surface area. There are approximately 300million
alveoli in the lungs of a human adult.

NB: total area is 90m2 (nearly as large as a basketball pitch)

- The internal surface is moist being lined up with mucus to help in the rapid
diffusion of gases
- Have a rich supply of blood capillaries which allows rapid gaseous exchange
between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the adjacent capillaries.
- The walls of the alveoli are made up of a layer of thin epithelial cells. This thin
barrier permits rapid diffusion of gases.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Lungs
- Each lung is enclosed by two membranes (double membrane) known as pleural
membrane.
- One part of the membrane adheres tightly to the lungs and the other covers the
inside of the thoracic cavity. The space between these membranes is known as
pleural cavity.
- It’s filled with pleural fluid which reduces friction and therefore makes the
lungs move freely in the chest cavity during breathing.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Thoracic cavity
- The lungs and pleural membranes are contained in the thoracic cavity.
- Thoracic cavity is surrounded by ribs, sternum and vertebrae which are all held
together by muscles at the lower end known as the diaphragm.
- Ribs are curved bones which project from the vertebral column dorsally and
ventrally with sternum
- However the lower most ribs are not attached to the sternum .the ribs protect
the lungs and heart.
- Between the ribs are internal and external tissue referred to as intercostal
muscles. These muscles work antagonistic to each other i.e. when one set of
muscles contract the other set relaxes.

Thorax
- It’s an airtight cavity enclosed by the ribs and the diaphragm.

Mechanism of breathing in humans

- It involves two processes: inspiration / inhalation/ breathing in and
expiration/exhalation/ breathing out. These two processes are brought about
by movement of the ribs and diaphragm.

Inspiration/ inhalation/ breathing in

- This process occurs when the thoracic cavity increases in volume and thereafter
decreases in pressure.
- During inspiration the external intercostal muscles contract while the
internal intercostal muscles relax. This movement pulls the ribs upwards
and outwards.
- The diaphragm which is dome shaped flattens by the contraction of its
muscles. The flattening of the diaphragm together with the outward movement
of the ribs increases the volume of the thoracic cavity and decreases the
pressure inside it.
- Atmospheric pressure being higher than pressure inside the thoracic cavity
forces air to rush into the lungs through the nose and trachea hence
inflating the lungs.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Expiration/ exhalation
- This process occurs when the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases and the
pressure inside it increases.
- This is brought about by the following:
- The external intercostal muscles relax while the internal intercostal muscles
contract bringing the ribs down to their original position. At the same time the
muscles of the diaphragm relax and regain its original dome shape.
- These movements decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity and increase the
pressure inside it. Thus air is forced out of the lungs through the air
passages into the atmosphere thus deflating the lungs.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Summary of inhalation and exhalation
- inhalation - Exhalation
- External intercostal - External intercostal
muscles contract muscles relax
- -
- Internal intercostal - Internal intercostal
muscles relax muscles contract
- Ribcage is lifted up and - Ribcage moves
outwards downwards and
inwards
- Diaphragm muscles - Diaphragm muscles
contract relax
- Diaphragm flattens - Diaphragm archs
upwards and becomes
dome - shaped
- Volume of thoracic - Volume of thoracic
cavity increases cavity decreases
- Air pressure decreases - Air pressure increase
- Air moves into the lung - Air is forced out of the
through the nostrils, alveoli into the
pharynx, glottis, the trachea, glottis,
trachea and into the pharynx, nostrils and
alveoli into the atmosphere
- Lungs inflate - Lungs deflate

Exchange of gases between alveoli and the capillaries

- The alveoli and blood capillaries are made of very thin walls.
- The walls of the alveolus are covered by a film of moisture which dissolves O2
in the inhaled air.
- Since O2 concentration in the blood is lower than in the alveolus it diffuses
through the epithelium, the capillary wall, the plasma and into the RBC where it
combines with haemoglobin.
- CO2 in the capillaries surrounding the alveoli is at a higher concentration than
inside the alveoli hence it diffuses into the alveoli.
-

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Refer the diagram below in KLB F2 page 64 for clarification. .

Changes in gases during inhalation and exhalation

Percentage composition of gases inhaled and exhaled air

Gas % in % in
inhaled exhaled air
air
Oxygen 20 16.9
Co2 0.03 4.0
Nitrogen 79.97 79.97
& other
gases

Question;

1. Explain the variations between the CO2 and O2 gases inhaled and exhaled.
2. Explain why there is no difference between the N2gas inhaled and exhaled.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
Regulation of breathing
- The average breathing rate in human beings is 16 to 18 times per minute.
- Breathing movements normally take place unconsciously
- In the brain there is a region called medulla oblongata which controls the
breathing movements.
- As CO2 in the blood reaches this region it triggers this part of the brain to send
impulses to the rib muscles and the diaphragm which in turn respond
appropriately. This makes breathing to continue on and on.
- During vigorous activity the concentration of CO2 increases into the body
tissues hence more CO2 diffuses into the blood and reaches the medulla
oblongata.
- The high concentration of CO2 in blood triggers the medulla oblongata to
increase the rate of breathing.
Increased rate of breathing helps to increase the amount of O2 in the blood thereby
meeting the demands of the increased tissue respiration.

Factors affecting the rate of breathing

Exercise
- During vigorous physical activity the rate of breathing increases so as to meet
the increased demand of O2 required in respiration to produce energy for the
exercise.
- Faster breathing also eliminates the extra CO2 produced by the increased
respiration.

Age
- Young people are more active than elderly people and therefore they have a
higher demand of O2 for the production of energy. They therefore have faster
breathing rate. Young people are also actively growing hence the faster rate of
breathing to supply tissues with O2

Emotions
- Generally the body emotions affect the production of hormone adrenaline
which increases the general metabolism and hence increased rate of breathing
e.g. fear anxiety and fright

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Temperature
- When the temperature is high there is a tendency in the rate of gashouse
exchange to increase because of increased metabolic rates. However if
temperature is too high/beyond optimum the breathing rate will reduce this is
because metabolic enzymes are denatured and reactions take place at a slower
rate.

Health
- During sickness e.g. fever the rate of breathing increases. The faster rate of
breathing enables the liver to remove toxins in drugs and also those released by
diseases causing micro-organism.
- The faster rate of breathing also enables the kidneys to excrete waste products
of body metabolism through urine. However, some diseases make breathing to
be difficult. Comparatively, healthy people are more active than sick people and
thus healthy people may require more oxygen in their tissues.

Altitude
- At high altitude the rate of breathing is faster than at low altitude. At high
altitude O2 concentration is low because of low atmospheric pressure, thus
faster rate of breathing helps supply tissues with sufficient oxygen.

LUNG VOLUMES

- Lungs of an adult can hold approximately 5500cm3 of air when completely

filled. This volume is known as lung capacity. However this volume is not
reached normally and therefore during normal breathing a small volume of air
about 500cm3 is taken in and out of the lungs. This volume of air is referred as
to as the tidal volume.
- In addition to tidal volume a person can have a forced inhalation. this additional
volume is called inspiratory reserve volume (2000cm3)
- Tidal volume +inspiratory reserve volume =inspiratory capacity
- After normal exhalation it is possible to force out extra volume of air. This
volume is called expiratory reserve volume (1300cm3)
- It is possible to have deepest possible exhalation. Such volume of air which can
only be forcibly pushed out of lungs is called vital capacity.
- After the deepest possible exhalation some air normally remains in the lungs.
His volume of air is called residual volume (1500cm3)

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Respiratory diseases

- These are the diseases that affect the breathing structures and make gaseous
exchange in animals difficult.

Asthma
- This is a disease which mainly affects the air passages
Causes
- Allergy which can be due to pollen grains dust, spores, flowers, fur of animal
e.t.c.
- Constant lung infection caused by viruses and bacteria.
- Emotional and mental stress such as anxiety, anger and fear
- Mild or extreme cold weather
- Certain hereditary diseases especially those affecting respiratory organs
increase the chances of infection.
Due to the above causes, the patient may have difficulties in breathing because
of the constriction of air channels caused by muscular contractions. A
patient therefore produces wheezing sound accompanied by the feeling of
suffocation.
Control
- Avoiding the causative agents.
Treatment
-The spraying of a muscle- relaxant directly into the bronchial tubes.
-Injection of drugs or oral application pills prescribed by a health physician.
Bronchitis
This is the inflammation of the bronchial tubes. There are two types of bronchitis
.i.e.
acute bronchitis, chronic bronchitis.
Acute bronchitis
This is widespread illness in children and frail adults. It is caused by.
- A complication of the common cold. It results into the chilling of the body
giving way to bacterial infection.
- A complication resulting from a previous disease attack e.g. measles, whooping
cough, influenza and dengue fever.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
Symptoms.
- Coughing
- Head aches
- Fever
- Pain beneath the sternum
- Breathing fast
Control
- Keep warm
Treatment
- Seek prompt treatment for infections
Chronic bronchitis
- Result from heavy cigarette smoking and constant attacks by acute bronchitis.
Symptoms
- Production of thick sputum (phlegm) that is green or yellow in colour due to pus
from respiratory surface.
- Difficulties in breathing
Control
- Avoid smoking or smoking places and continuous exposure to dusty places.
- Keep warm and live in well ventilated places.
- Seek medical attention immediately the symptoms are observed.
Whooping cough
- Results from an acute infection of the respiratory tract by a bacterium called
Bordetella pertussis.
- The disease is endemic in Kenya .i.e. it’s regularly found in a specific group of
people.
Symptoms
- Prolonged coughing and vomiting
- Bleeding of the eyes (conjunctival haemorrhage)
- Convulsions and coma
- Ulcers and cardiac failure
- Malnutrition especially protein and calory deficiency due to repeated vomiting
and difficulty in eating.

Control

- Immunization should be given soon after birth.

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Treatment
- Patients with complications should be admitted to the hospital for special care
and treatment.
- Patients should be fed well during the time of sickness.
Pneumonia
- It’s a disease caused by the bacterium Streptocococcus pneumoniae. The
chances of attack are increased by other chest infections e.g. bronchitis,
whooping cough e.t.c.
Symptoms
- Shallow and difficult breathing.
- Coughing with production of sputum
- Fevers and chest pains
- Lungs become inflamed and alveoli are filled with fluid.
Control
Avoid overcrowded and poorly ventilated places
Treatment

- Use antibiotics eg penicillin and sulphonamides prescribed by a doctor.

Pulmonary Tuberculosis
- It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis
- This disease affects any part of the body.
- Its an air borne disease and its spread through saliva droplets, sputum and infected
milk.
Symptoms
- Fevers and fatigue
- Deep coughing sometimes with sputum containing blood
- Loss of body weight.
- Slight afternoon fever
- The bacterium destroys lung tissues making it hard for the patient to breathe. It
may eventually result into death.

Control
- Suspected sufferers should have a medical checkup and can be detected in its
early stages by radiographical method
- Avoid overcrowded and dirty places.
- Vaccination of the population using BCG(Bacille calmette Guerin)

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 Common cold
- It’s a mild disease of the upper respiratory tract caused by a large variety of
viruses.
- Each year about ¾ of human population suffer one or more colds hence the
name common cold.
Symptoms
- Stuffy nose
- Watery eyes
- Sneezing, coughing and fever. In severe cases there may be a headache,
backache and muscle ache.
Transmission
- It’s through close contact with infected people especially through coughing and
sneezing. It can also be transmitted through contaminated eating utensils.
Treatment
- So far there is no cure for common cold.
- The disease normally cares itself within a few days.
- The patient should however lie in bed and have plenty of fluids.
- Painkillers like penadol may be taken to relieve various aches and to relieve
fever.
- If the disease does not cure within few days or if there are persistent aches, then
it is advisable to see the doctor.
Lung cancer
-It is caused by uncontrolled division and growth of cells in the body resulting
totissue [Link] that can causecancer is called carcinogenic
[Link] contains carcinogenic such as tar that can cause lung cancer
Symptoms.
-Persistent cough
-Blood in septum
-Chest pain
Control and treatment
-Avoid smoking
-Surgery to remove tumour
-Radiotherapy/Chemotherapy to destroy cancerous cells

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 SELECTED TOPICAL QUESTIONS

1. (a)Why is gaseous exchange important to organisms?

b) (i) name the structure used for gaseous exchange by plants
ii) Briefly describe the structure of stomata
iii) State the factors which affect stomatal opening
c) Name the theories suggesting the mechanism of opening and closing of
stomata
d) Describe the mechanism of opening and closing of stomata
2. a) What is the advantage of having stomata open during daytime and
having them closed at night?
b) State the ways in which leaves of plants are adapted to gaseous exchange
 presence of stomata for faster gaseous exchange
 intercellular spaces/air spaces in the leaf for movement/circulation of air
 film of moisture around the surface of cells for easy diffusion
 broad/flattened shape to increase surface area
 thin lamina to reduce distance of diffusion
 exposed to air for easy diffusion
c) Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in terrestrial plants
 Gaseous exchange takes place in spongy mesophyll
 During the day air diffuses into large air spaces of spongy mesophyll
through stomata
 The carbon iv oxide in the air diffuses into the photosynthesis oxygen is
produced
 Some of the oxygen diffuses out of the leaf through stomata
 During the night air diffuses out of air spaces of spongy mesophyll
 The air dissolves into film of moisture
 The oxygen in the air diffuses into cells and is used in respiration during
which carbon iv oxide is produced
 The carbon iv oxide diffuses out of the leaf through stomata due to
diffusion/concentration gradient
 At night carbon iv oxide accumulates in the leaf since photosynthesis does
not take place
 Some gaseous exchange also takes place through cuticle
 Gaseous exchange occurs through epidermis of young leaves and stems
 The cork cells at lenticels are loosely packed
 Gaseous exchange takes place between cork and atmosphere within the
loosely packed cells

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 3. (a)State the ways in which floating leaves of aquatic plants are adapted
to gaseous exchange
 stomata found only on upper dermis to allow efficient gaseous exchange
 presence to aerenchyma tissues/large air spaces to enable it
float/buoyancy/storage of air
 absence of cuticle to enhance gaseous exchange
b) How is aerenchyma tissue adapted to its function?
has large airspaces which store gases/for gaseous exchange/buoyancy
c. Explain stomatal distribution in plants of different habitats
-land plants have their stomata mainly on the lower side to reduce water loss but if
on both sides then upper side has very few
-water plants, floaters, have stomata on upper side to enhance water loss
in dry areas, plants have leaves with sunken stomata to reduce water loss by
transpiration
-Plants in wet areas have stomata equally distributed on both sides.
4 a) i) List the types of respiratory surfaces of animals
b) Make a labeled drawing of a fish gill
c) Describe gaseous exchange in protozoa
d) State the characteristics of respiratory surfaces in animals
5 a) How is a fish gill adapted to its function?
b) Discuss gaseous exchange in bony fish
c) i) What is counter-flow system?
ii) What is the advantage of counter-flow system?
6.a) Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in terrestrial insects
b) State how tracheoles are adapted to gaseous exchange
7 a) What is breathing?
b) Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a mammal
c) Explain how mammalian lungs are adapted to gaseous exchange
8 a) Name the features of alveoli that adapt them to their function
b) How is the trachea of a mammal suited to its function?
c) State the advantages of breathing through the nose rather than through
the mouth
9 a) Give the conditions under which the carbon iv oxide level rises above
normal in
ammalian blood
b) Explain the physiological changes that occur in the body to lower the
carbon iv oxide level back to normal when it rises
 heartbeat/cardiac frequency increases to pump blood faster carbon iv oxide
from the tissues and supply more oxygen

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange
 ventilation rate/rate and depth of breathing increases to take more oxygen and
remove carbon iv oxide from the lungs
 arterioles to take in more oxygen and remove carbon iv oxide from the lungs
 arterioles dilate leading to faster flow of blood to and from body tissues
10. Describe the factors which control the rate of breathing in humans
 breathing movements usually occur unconsciously
 it is controlled by the medulla oblongata part of the brain situated at the
breathing centre
 medullar oblongata is in the brain
 respiratory centre transmits impulses to the diaphragm through phrenic nerves
 carbon iv oxide concentration in the blood determines the breathing rate
 if carbon iv oxide is less, the brain is triggered to decrease breathing rate
 cardiac frequency decreases and the arterioles constrict
 therefore carbon iv oxide level is raised
 this brings back to normal level of breathing and carbon iv oxide level
increases/is more the brain is triggered to increase breathing rate
 cardiac frequency is increased
 there is vasodilation of arterioles
 carbon iv oxide level falls therefore the normal level is attained and carbon iv
oxide is removed faster
11. Name the respiratory diseases
[Link] an experiment to show that plants release oxygen gas during
photosynthesis ,state observations,explain, roles of parts/apparatus..
[Link] to that plant release carbon (IV) during respiration
[Link] to compare the volume of carbon( IV) oxide in inhaled and
exhaled air.
[Link] two waysin which lenticels are adapted to their functions.
[Link] the path taken by Carbon (IV) oxide released from the tissues of
an insect to the atmosphere.
[Link] describe the role of the diaphragm in exhalation
[Link] why Carbon (IV) oxide and oxygen gas are referred to as
respiratory gases
[Link] and functions parts a gill
[Link] lung volumes
[Link] three differences between guard celland other epidermal cells
[Link] and explain ways in which leaves are adapted for gasous exchange

SUCCESS!! –[Link]

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Biology notes F2 Gaseous Exchange