SUSTAINABLE

AGRICULTURAL
SYSTEMS

EDITORS
Clive A. Edwards, Chairman
Department of Entomology
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210

Rattan Lal, Professor

Department of Agronomy
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210

Patrick Madden, Coordinator

LISA Field Operations
Madden Associates
Glendale, California 91209

Robert H. Miller, Dean and Director

College of Resource Development
University of Rhode Island
Kingston. Rhode Island 02881
formerly Head
Soil Science Department
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina 27695

Gar House, Research Scientist

Crown Research
Coronado, California 92118
formerly Assistant Professor
Department of Entomology
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
 SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURAL
SYSTEMS

Edited by
Clive A. Edwards, Rattan Lal, Patrick Madden,
Robert H. Miller and Gar House

SOIL~,
AND WATER
CONSERVATION
SOCIETY
Soil and Water Conservation Society
7515 Northeast Ankeny Road
Ankeny, Iowa 50021

sL
St. Lucie Press
2000 Corporate Boulevard, N.W.
Boca Raton, Florida 33431-9868
Copyright© 1990 by the Soil and Water Conservation Society
All rights reserved.

Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 89-26370

ISBN 0-935734-21-X

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Main entry under title:

Sustainable Agricultural Systems I edited by Clive A. Edwards ... (et al.).

p. ern.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-935734-21-X
I. Sustainable agriculture. 2. Agricultural systems.
I. Edwards, C. A. (Clive Arthur), 1925-.
S494.5.S86S86 1990 89-26370
338.1'62--dc20 CIP
 CONTENTS

Foreword, xi

Preface, xiii

Introduction, xv

I. An Overview
of Sustainable Agriculture

1 A History of Sustainable Agriculture

Richard R. Harwood 3

2 Making Agriculture a Sustainable Industry

N. C. Brady 20

3 International Goals and the Role of the International

Agricultural Research Centers
Donald L. Plucknett 33

4 Sustainable Agriculture in the United States

J. F. Parr, R. /. Papendick, I. G. Youngberg,
and R. E. Meyer 50

v
vi CONTENTS

5 Society's Stake in Sustainable Agriculture

Charles M. Benbrook 68

6 Sustainability: An Opportunity for Leadership

Robert Rodale 77

II. Components of Sustainable

Agricultural Systems

7 Soil Nutrient Management in the United States

Larry D. King 89

8 Crop Rotations in Sustainable Agricultural Systems

C. A. Francis and M. D. Clegg 107

9 Ecological and Agronomic Characteristics

of Innovative Cropping Systems
Benjamin R. Stinner and John M. Blair 123

10 Biotechnology and Crop Breeding for Sustainable

Agriculture
Holly Hauptli, David Katz, Bruce R. Thomas,
and Robert M. Goodman 141

11 Pest Management in Sustainable Agricultural Systems

John M. Luna and Garfield J. House 157

12 Evolving Strategies for Managing Weeds

Emilie E. Regnier and Rhonda R. Janke 174

13 Conservation Tillage in Sustainable Agriculture

R. Lal, D. J. &kert, N. R. Fausey, and W. M. Edwards 203

14 Pasture Management
Bill Murphy 226

15 Role of Animals in Sustainable Agriculture

Charles F. Parker 238
CONTENTS vii

Ill. The Importance of Integration

in Sustainable Farming Systems
16 The Importance of Integration in Sustainable
Agricultural Systems
Clive A. Edwards 249

17 Integrated Farming System of Lautenbach:

A Practical Contribution toward Sustainable
Agriculture in Europe
A. El Titi and H. Landes 265

18 Research on Integrated Arable Farming and Organic

Mixed Farming in the Netherlands
P. Vereijken 287

IV. Sustainable Agricultural

Systems in the Tropics
19 Ecological Agriculture in China
Shi ming Luo and Chun ru Han 299

20 Sustainable Agricultural Systems in Tropical Africa

Bede N. Okigbo 323

21 Ecological Considerations for the Future of Food

Security in Africa
H.C.P. Brown and V. G. Thomas 353

22 Understanding the Basis of Sustainability for

Agriculture in the Tropics: Experiences in Latin
America
Stephen R. Gliessman 378

23 Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the Humid

Tropics of South America
Hugo Villachica, Jose E. Silva, Jose Roberto Peres, and
Carlos Magno C. da Rocha 391
viii CONTENTS

24 Sustaining Agriculture: The Indian Scene

N. S. Randhawa and I. P. Abrol 438

v. Policy Development for the Low-input

Sustainable Agriculture Program

25 Policy Development for the Low-input Sustainable

Agriculture Program
Paul F. 0 'Connell 453

26 The Role of Economics in Achieving Low-input Far­

ming Systems
J. Patrick Madden and Thomas L. Dobbs 459

27 The Economics of Sustainable Agricultural Systems

in Developing Countries
Randolph Barker and Duane Chapman 478

28 The Economic Impact of Sustainable Agriculture on

the Agricultural Chemical Industry
C.A.l. Goring 495

29 Compound and Household Farming: A Sustainable

System for African Agriculture
Natalie D. Hahn 504

30 Sociological Aspects of Agricultural Sustainability in

the United States: A New York State Case Study
Frederick H. Butte/, Gilbert W. Gillespie, Jr., and
Alison Power 515

31 Socioeconomic Aspects of Machinery Requirements

for Rotational Agriculture
T. S. Colvin, D. C. Erbach, and W. D. Kemper 533
CONTENTS ix

VI. Improved Ecological lmpads

of Sustainable Agriculture

32 Lower Input Effects on Soil Productivity and

Nutrient Cycfing
Fred P. Miller and William E. Larson 549

33 Soil Erosion and a Sustainable Agriculture

John M. Laflen, &man Lal, and Samir A. El-Swaify 569

34 Sustainable Agriculture and Water Quality

T. ~ Logan 582

35 Soil Microbiological Inputs for Sustainable

Agricultural Systems
R. H. Miller 614

36 Role of Sustainable Agriculture in Rural Landscapes

G. W. Barrett, N. Rodenhouse. and P. J. Bohlen 624

37 Soil Biota as Components of Sustainable

Agroecosystems
P. F. Hendrix, D. A. Crossley, Jr., J. M. Blair, and
D. C. Coleman 637

38 Agriculture and Human Health

Katherine L. Clancy 655

39 A Matter of Commitment
Stephen Viederman 666

40 Sustainable Agricultural Systems: A Concluding View

Francille M. Firebaugh 614

Contributors, 677

Index, 681
 FOREWORD

Early in my married life, I went to fudia as a staff assistant to the American

ambassador for four years. It was there I came to appreciate the degree
to which agriculture really is the cornerstone of the economic health and
well-being of any country. To live in India from 1963 to 1967, which as
many of you know were critical years in the emergence of the green revolu­
tion in that country, was a most exciting time. I worked with an ambassador
named Chester Bowles, who was a great believer that agriculture came
before industrial development. He regularly debated that proposition with
Prime Minister Nehru and appealed to a book of ancient wisdom in India
that began, '1\griculture is the lynchpin of the social chariot."
From a local standpoint, Ohio is part of those midwestern states that
comprise about a quarter of our nation's population, but provide four out
of ten of the farmers in our nation. These farmers produce more than 44
percent of our nation's food products. Here in Ohio, which is often thought
of as an industrial state, and it is, agriculture, in terms of food production,
processing, and marketing, is the state's number one industry. fu 1988, we
faced the \\Orst drought in many years, perhaps on record, and it has remind­
ed us of just how fragile our hold on this agricultural wealth is.
The history of agriculture in the 20th century is a story of dramatic
technological advances that have led to increased production. Indeed, I've
often thought that the manufacturing industry could learn a great deal from
agriculture about how to increase productivity.
Still, without the recent rainfall, I believe this country would have faced
a disaster of unmatched proportions despite all of the advanced technology
available to us. The impact of such a disaster on American farmers and

xi
xii FOREWORD

consumers would, of course, have been harsh, but it would have been
catastrophic for millions of people around the world whose survival still
depends on repeated bumper crops of American agricultural products.
Just as the Midwest is the nation's breadbasket, it has, in many respects,
been the world's breadbasket. And while we're proud of that fuct, I think
we ought also to be humbled by that responsibility and to recognize that
it is something that needs to change over time. All of this perspective gives,
I think, additional meaning to the concept of sustainable agriculture. To
me the word "sustainable" has several important aspects, not the least of
which implies the future. When we talk about sustainable agriculture, we
talk not only about low inputs for optimum production, we are also talk
about agriculture with a future, agriculture with a dependable future.
The experience of our last few months here in Ohio and in this part of
our country also reminds us of how indivisible we are as a human family.
Two years ago, Ohio farmers provided relief for their counterparts in the
southeastern United States as they were reeling from a drought there. Many
of those farmers had the opportunity to return the favor this year. Ohio
farmers were struck by the fact that as we worried about the drought in
our own state, our sister province in China, Hubei Province, suffered a
similarly severe drought. Our farmers commented on the irony that here
we were, sister state and sister province, both confronted by a similar
challenge to our agricultural abundance.
The fact is that we live in an increasingly integrated global economy where
virtually everything is interconnected, and the days are long since past when
we could refer to the U.S. economy as a free-standing entity. In this, the
year the earth talked back, we have also begun to understand that we live
in a single ecosystem where the greenhouse effect, the destruction of the
ozone layer, the impact of acid rain, the consequences of deforestation are
shared by all, and make the prospects of sustainable growth the greatest
challenge before us. This is not an American problem or a Third World
problem. This is a worldwide challenge that we all must begin to meet,
and we must meet it as much here in America's heartland as in any other
part of the globe.

Richard F. Celeste
 PREFACE

Modern agriculture in developed countries currently depend upon high

inputs of inorganic fertilizers and synthetic chemicals for pest control and
tends towards monoculture of cash crop varieties that require such inputs.
These practices have increased overall productivity, but they have also led
to overproduction of certain crops in the United States and Europe, which
has reduced farmers' profit margins because of the inevitable drop in market
prices of crops. Intensive production also has the potential to accelerate
wind and water erosion of soils and to result in the contamination of sur­
face water and groundwater.
There is a growing awareness about the need to adopt more sustainable
and integrated systems of agricultural production that depend less on
chemical and other energy-based inputs. Such systems can often maintain
yields, lower the cost of inputs, increase farm profits, and reduce ecological
problems. Some developing countries, having used subsistence agricultural
practices and subsequently increased yields by adopting higher input
methods, are now experiencing greater pest, disease, and weed problems;
increased soil erosion; environmental hazards; and economic stress. Yet
the need to increase food production in these countries is greater than ever
before. Hence, there is an urgent need for both research and education on
sustainable farming systems that can increase productivity and profits for
farmers without endangering the resource base and polluting the
environment.
This same situation exists throughout the world. In the United States,
the Department of Agriculture (USDA) made significantnew funds available
to promote sustainable agriculture in 1988. These funds are expected to

xiii
xiv PREFACE

remain available and perhaps even increase in the years ahead. The govern­
ments of most European countries likewise are paying increased attention
to the need for lowering chemical inputs to avoid environmental problems,
and these same countries are reviewing means of reducing production over­
all. There are also major programs in the U.S. Agency for International
Development, the World Bank, and the World Resources Institute aimed
at promoting the concept of sustainability into the 21st century in Third
World countries.
This circumstance, worldwide, makes these proceedings of the Interna­
tional Conference on Sustainable Agricultural Systems that was held at Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio, in September 1988, and jointly organized
by Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, and North Carolina
State University, extremely timely. The conference was made possible by
the generous sponsorship of USAID and three USDA agencies, the Coopera­
tive States Research Service, the Soil Conservation Service, and the Agri­
cultural Research Service, along with the Rodale Institute and the Farm
Foundation. We are also grateful to the Soil and Water Conservation Society
for the prompt publication of this material.
The conference included 38 formal presentations, which form the con­
tents of this book, and 40 poster presentations, some of which are being
published elsewhere. There were also five \\Urkshops that addressed critical
issues on (1) "Government Policies and Strategies to Promote Sustainable
Agriculture," (2) "Innovative Technical Assistance and U.S. Aid Policies
to Promote Sustainable Agriculture in Developing Countries;' (3) "Research
Education and Extension Strategies in Sustainable Agriculture," (4) "The
Agrochemical Industry in Relation to Sustainable Agriculture," and (5)
"Building on Success: Farmer Participation in Sustainable Agriculture."
There was one informal discussion group as well on the "Role of Women
in Sustainable Agriculture." Participants in each of these sessions were asked
to discuss present policies and strategies and develop recommendations
on future research, teaching, and extension activities. The discussion in
each case was summarized by a rapporteur and presented to a plenary ses­
sion of the entire conference for comment and discussion. The conclusions
have since been published as a booklet by the Rodale Institute.

Clive A. Edwards
 INTRODUCTION

The topic of agricultural sustainability is a high priority in all countries

around the earth, whether they are developed or developing in their cur­
rent economies. Some would say it has been too long in receiving atten­
tion. But I prefer to view it as timely and relevant.
There is no more important question before us on this globe today than
that of the sustainability of agricultural systems. Desertification, deforesta­
tion, and accumulation of chemicals in soils and waters are of increasing
concern in many ecosystems and different parts of the world. One can find
a growing number of such citations in both scientific and popular publica­
tions, to the degree that not only scientists but also the general public are
raising serious questions about the current state of affairs and potential alter­
natives for the future.
It has been authentically reported that some agricultural systems that were
once popular have disappeared over time because they could not be sus­
tained for a variety of reasons. Others have been sustained for thousands
of years and are still flourishing. Not enough has been done to analyze
the differences between those systems and practices that persisted and those
that did not. Such analyses might provide insight concerning the present
and future.
Many definitions of the term "sustainable agriculture" have been pre­
sented, and that is as it should be. We must recognize the varied points
of view that enter such a discussion. For me the term sustainable merely
adds a long-term dimension to consideration of any agricultural system.
It requires studies that are conducted over a long period of time, such as
decades, rather than for three or four years. I might point out the Rotham­

XV
xvi INTRODUCTION

stead plots in England and the Morrow, Jordan, and Sanborn plots in the
United States are excellent examples of long-term experiments that have
contributed invaluable information. I am convinced that we must initiate
new studies with a long time frame that integrate many of the current and
innovative farming practices in a variety of ecosystems.
Much has been written recently regarding the environmental and the
economic aspects of sustainable agricultural systems. A sustainable system
must be both economically profitable and environmentally compatible. As
William Ruckelshaus has pointed out, "Unlike railroad tracks, economic
development and environmental protection really do converge if you take
a long enough view."

F. E. Hutchinson
 AN OVERVIEW
OF SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
 A HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
Richard R. Harwood

1 provide a conceptual setting for the

definition of sustainable agriculture and to show evolutionary trends in its
development, two reference points in that evolution are of special impor­
tance. These two reference points are not meant to be exclusive but rather
to represent a spectrum of thought.
The first reference point should be placed in the early 1980s, with the
emergence of the concepts of regenerative agriculture (Rodale, 1983) and
the articulation of a sustainable agriculture (Jackson, 1980). The early con­
cept has evolved into a construct of agriculture based on principles of eco­
logical interaction. It is referred to as an ecological definition of sustain­
ability. This concept now forms the philosophical basis for most alternative
agricultural groups.
A second reference point is the increased use of the term sustainable,
starting in 1987, to refer to a "stable" agriculture in the global sense, in­
volving all facets of agriculture and its interaction with society. It is the
"universal" sense that seems to be the object of this book.

A Framework for Universal Definition

The word sustainable implies steady state. If one sees a steady-state situa­
tion, one must look over horizons to some distant goal. A careful reading
of development literature reveals as many ideas about direction as there
are authors, so consensus on an equilibrium point would be impossible.
Lack of understanding; of hard data; or ofconsensus on resource bases,
global climate and its variation, technologies of the future, the role of peo­

3
4 RICHARD R. HARWOOD

pie in agriculture, and the relationship between people, agriculture, and

the environment all make prediction of an end point a futile exercise. Others
could argue as well that there may never be an end point or equilibrium
but, as with the rest of the universe, a continual process of evolution.
Given the limits of vision, of data, and of the imprecision of a process
for arriving at consensus, I suggest using a "framework" definition that
can be filled with appropriate detail by country and by desired time frame.
A workable definition is ''an agriculture that can evolve indefinitely toward
greater human utility, greater efficiency of resource use, and a balance
with the environment that is favorable both to humans and to most other
species.
This definition is heavily value-laden, but it is consistent with the param­
eters of an emerging social and political agenda for agricultural develop­
ment. It is also very much generic. To understand the process by which
it is translated into substance in any national setting, some sense is needed
of public agendas, the translation of those agendas into policy, and the roles
of agendas and policy in development.

Evolution of the Sustainability Concept

Agricultural evolution always has been guided by a perception of what

should be, sometimes called the model, the goal, or even the ideology.
The difference between that goal and agriculture as it exists presently is
the development gap. The breadth or all-inclusiveness of the model likewise
changes with time. We could analyze at great length the philosophical
bases for development, but we will limit ourselves to just a few key con­
cepts that seem most closely related to present sustainability concepts.
Some analysts take us back to origins of current conflict in a Newtonian
world view. Rifkin (1980) characteristizes that view by four relevant
elements: a mechanical view of nature, a rigid dichotomy between nature
and society, a faith in progress, and a consumerist ethic. Others point to
the 17th century English philosopher John Locke who wrote on the social
goal of efficiency in agriculture by stating, "He that encloses land, and
has a greater plenty of the conveniences of life from 10 acres, then he could
have from a 100 left to nature, may truly be said to give 90 acres to mankind."
Others point to Thomas Jefferson's linkage of agricultural practices with
morality. In notes on the State of Virginia in the late 1700s, Jefferson (1984)
wrote, "Those who labor in the earth are the chosen people of God, if
ever he had a chosen people, whose breasts he has made his peculiar deposit
for substantial and genuine virtue ...." Corruption of morals in the mass
of cultivators is a phenomenon of which no age or nation has furnished
A HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 5

an example. The poet and philosopher Emerson expressed a similar belief.

Some would say that the thoughts of Newton are reflected closely in the
global view of the Battelle Institute (1985) and those of both Jefferson and
Emerson in the works of Wendell Berry (1978). Certainly, the conflicts now
faced in the articulation of a universal paradigm are in many instances the
same as those addressed by writers of two centuries ago.
However, we are not as concerned here with philosophical content as
much as with process. At the turn of the 20th century, U.S. agriculture
was in the early stages of industrialization. The conflict between an urban
"agrarian" lifestyle and what were seen as radical changes being brought
on by industrialization was already present (Danboro, 1979). More impor­
tant, however, were the divisions among and between funners and the grow­
ing community of "land-grant" scientists. Now these divisions have returned
to haunt us 80 years later.
In the early 1900s, popular thinking among farmers had led to rejection
of the portion of Jeffersonian thought that held individualism to be supreme.
Politically, this led to establishment of organizations, such as the Grange.
Farmers felt that they should develop and share technological knowledge
among themselves. There were two sources of that knowledge. The "syste­
matic agriculturists" looked to the emerging industry as their model. The
second group, the "scientific agriculturists;' looked to nature as their model,
with the objective of rationalizing and formalizing their experiences as
"natural historians" (Marcus, 1985). At the same time, land-grant scien­
tists were beginning to have an impact (Rossiter, 1975). It is these philos­
ophies and to these turn-of-the-century farmer-scientist groups that we can
trace the roots of much of the current debate on sustainable agriculture.
U.S. agriculture was in a major expansionist mode during the early 1900s.
The number of farms reached a peak of 6.8 million in the early 1930s
(Hardin, 1988). Mechanization was being adopted rapidly, spurred by ris­
ing costs and the scarcity of labor brought on both by area expansion and
by competing demands for industry. Technologies were increasing rapidly,
as exemplified by the development and widespread adoption of crop hybrids.
The land-grant system was a major determinant in the articulation of the
development paradigm. During the early 20th century, the concepts of con­
servation evolved, first giving emphasis to preservation of natural areas.
The progressive conservation movement of the early 1900s established the
intellectual foundations of the later conservation programs (Batie et al.,
1985).
A series of conservative programs reflects these common roots, including
the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933, the Soil Bank Program of 1956,
and the Food Security Act of 1985 (Phipps and Crosson, 1986). These pro­
6 RICHARD R. HARWOOD

grams addressed both the problems of soil conservation and of growing

surplus production through the mechanism of land reserves or set-aside
acres (Hardin, 1988; Jeske, 1981). Parallel to these developments and to
the spread of new crop technologies and to rapidly expanding mechaniza­
tion was the spread of "chemical" technologies. The use of industrially
produced fertilizers spread rapidly after World War II, and that of pesticide
development followed close behind, leading to what Rifkin calls "the age
of alchemy" (Rifkin, 1983).
I would like momentarily, however, to review a thought development pro­
cess of major significance to the concept of sustainability that traces its
origin through Malcolms' "scientific agriculturists." At the turn of the 20th
century, the concepts of wholism versus reductionism were taking shape
(Harwood, 1983). The emergence of thought on wholism, of looking to
natural systems as a model, and of the role of farmers in evolving their
own systems (all concepts mentioned above) led to what is today generally
referred to as "alternative agriculture." Alternative agriculture evolved during
the 1900s in a course parallel to that of industrial agriculture, borrowing
liberally but selectively from technologies, such as new crop varieties, mech­
anization, and soil nutrient testing. A review of that evolution helps greatly
to understand today's debate. Many oftoday's alternative agriculturists trace
their history back, surprisingly enough, to Darwin.
Charles Darwin spent his later years in England meticulously studying
soil floral and faunal activity. His extremely interesting work, The Forma­
tion of Ji?getable Mold Through the Action of Worms, With Observations
of Their Habits, documents in great detail the intricate biological balances
in the soil (Darwin, 1882).
In the early 1900s, several works focused on the broader, nonsimplistic
aspects of agriculture and their complex interrelationships. Elliot (1907)
wrote of the complexities of pasture mixes and their importance to soil
fertility in rotations. The true classic, however, which stimulated later think­
ers of the British and American schools, was King's Farmers ofForty Cen­
turies (1911). King described in this book and in his following book, Soil
Management (King, 1914), the complexity of integration in the then highly
productive, traditionalsystems of Asia. The interrelationships between these
systems were the key to the thinking of all agriculturists who followed.

Biodynamic Agriculture

The first organized and well-defined movement of growers and philos­

ophies was the biodynamic movement, which arose from a series of lec­
tures given by Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy, in 1924 (Steiner,
A HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 7

1958). The basic tenets of biodynamic farming include:

• Sound farming and gardening techniques, no matter whether old or
new.
• Such principles as diversification, recycling, avoiding chemicals,
decentralized production and distribution, etc.-ideas held in other biological
movements. Since the 1920s, biodynamic farmers have developed the ex­
ecution of such principles and also reintroduced useful traditional techniques.
• The specific biodynamic measures and concepts as they evolve from
Steiner's spiritual teaching, which mold the method into a consistent whole
(Koepf et al. , 1976).
The latter point is usually what separates biodynamic practices from the
rest of biological agriculture. It includes "the stimulation and regulation
of complex life processes by biodynamic preparations for soils, plants,
manures" (Koepf et al., 1976). It also includes the consideration of cosmic
and terrestrial forces on biological organisms. Biological rhythms are
affected by a range of cosmic forces. Although growing evidence, mostly
from biomedical research, suggests the occurrence of such effects, their
importance in agriculture has not been evaluated.
Early writers on biodynamic agriculture include Pfeiffer (1934, 1943,
1956) and Baker (1940). These publications set forth the arguments for the
disruptive effects of concentrated synthetic fertilizer and pesticides, which
have been major aims of all biological or organic practitioners through the
years. The connections between the biological "health" of the soil and the
health of animals and humans associated with it, or using produce from
it, were also articulated at this time.
All of these concepts did not originate with the biodynamic school, but
they became an integral part of the thinking of Steiner and his followers.
More recent summaries ofthe biodynamic concepts include Koepf (1981),
Steiner (1958), Rateaver and Rateaver (1973), Pauli (1967), [Link] et al. (1976),
Pank (1976), and Jeavons (1979). Although the biodynamic movement is
concentrated in European and Scandinavian countries, a limited number
of practitioners, both commercial and home-garden, are found in the United
States and Canada.

Development of "Humus Farming" Concepts

A school of thought evolved both as a part of and in addition to the bio­

dynamic school that focused on the importance of humus in agriculture.
This concept provided the foundation for several philosophies of biological
agriculture that emerged from the 1930s through the 1960s.
Browne, in 1855, wrote The Field Book ofManures or the American Muck
8 RICHARD R. HARWOOD

Book. Roberts (1907), Fletcher (1907), and Waksman (1936) wrote basic
works on humus-oriented soil fertility that, at the time, were considered
states-of-the-art in scientific thought.
A major development that not only advanced techniques of compost­
making but began to discuss the disruptive effects of concentrated synthetic
fertilizers was that of Howard and Wad (1931). This work marked a major
point of departure for the humus-farming school. Publication of definitive
technical books and applied humus-funning books soon followed (Billington,
1942; Bruce, 1943, 1945a, 1945b; King, 1943; Waksman, 1936).
In 1943, Sir Albert Howard's book, An Agricultural Testament, became
a new landmark. Not only did it add significantly to the emerging thought
on humus farming through its exposition of the Indore method of com­
posting, it restated in positive, modem terms the concept of integrated farm­
ing. An Agricultural Testament influenced the Soil Society work in England
as well as the writing of J. I. Rodale in the United States. Subsequent works
by Howard elucidated further the connections between soil and health and
clarified the methods to be used in an agriculture based on biological struc­
ture rather than on the use of synthetic chemical inputs (Howard, 1945,
1946, 1947).
The humus-farming philosophy reached its peak in the early 1950s with
publications by Sykes (1949, 1952, 1959) and Seifert (1952). These works
proved to be the mainstay of the organic farming movement that followed.
The principles of composting and compost use were well articulated by
this time, and considerable research has since been done on the handling
of municipal waste, with emphasis on methodologies. Many feel the cul­
mination of agricultural composting studies is the Rodale Guide to Com­
posting (Minnich and Hunt, 1979).

Emergence of the Organic Philosophy

The basic tenets that led to organic, biological, and ecological agriculture
and eventually to the regenerative farming movement can be traced to Sir
Albert Howard's An Agricultural Testament (1943). The ideas of an inte­
grated, decentralized, chemical-free agriculture were advocated by
Northburn (1940) in a largely overlooked work. As far as we can tell, he
was the first to use the word organic to refer to the entire philosophy and
practice.
Graham (1941) and Barlow (1942) exemplified the rethinking of agricultural
practices that occurred in the 1940s. Barlow was especially critical of the
impacts of agriculture in the early 1940s on soil degradation and reduction
in diversity through specialization. The momentum increased signifi­
A HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 9

cantly with the publication of Lady Eve Balfour's The Living Soil (1943).
Faulkner's Plowman's Folly (1943) was another classic, spurred by the Dust
Bowl of the 1930s in the American Great Plains. Faulkner described in
forceful terms the biological and human tragedy resulting from misdirected
technology. In 1945, J. I. Rodale's Pay Dirt became a rallying point that
carried the organic movement in America through the difficult 1960s. A
lengthy series of books by J. I. Rodale was to follow (1948, 1953, 1954, 1fJ77).
The late 1940s and early 1950s were prolific periods for organic literature.
Faulkner (1946, 1947, 1952) was not only a critic of contemporary agriculture
but an experienced extension agent and farmer as well. He detailed his
own experiences in the regeneration of worn-out soil with organic farming
practices.
Louis Bromfield also contributed significantly with his accounts of organic
farms on which people, crops, and livestock were intermeshed in a living
system (Bromfield, 1946, 1947, 1950, 1955). Bromfield felt strongly that
the sensitivity, skill, and dedication required of a good farmer meant that
"not everybody can farm" (1950). Several other authors, including Pfeiffer
(1947), Cocannouer (1950, 1954, 1958), Hainsworth (1954), Howard (1947),
and Widkenden (1949), continued through 1956 to articulate the increas­
ing environmental harm and resource degradation brought about by
"modern" farming methods. They repeatedly advocated the holistic approach
to agriculture.
As with the earlier notions of Newton, Locke (1980), and Emerson (1904),
many of the issues debated and the relationships suggested during the first
half of the 20th century have become focal points for discussion in today's
debate on sustainability. The concept<> of wholeness, of an ecological model,
of a fragile relationship with the environment, and a host of farming prac­
tices are being reconsidered.

The 1960s: A Transition Period of Narrow Focus

By the late 1950s, the evolution and spread of industrial technologies

had increased exponentially. In the developed nations, the industrial model
was widespread. Moves toward crop specialization on the farm, permitted
by the availability and low price of fertilizers and pesticides, had accelerated.
The increased need for power as farmers grew only one or two crops was
met by larger horsepower tractors.
Capital for investment was readily available, perhaps generated in large
part by undervalued energy costs. The major problems were agricultural
surpluses. For those of us who went through our graduate training in agri­
culture during the early 1960s, it was a time of scientific euphoria. We
10 RICHARD R. HARWOOD

were in the post-Sputnik era and very literally on our way to the moon.
As scientists, we considered that we were masters of our fate and the fate
of humankind. Our technologies and our opinions, spoken from the dias
of science and academia, dominated the formulation of the development
paradigm of the day. Gone were the traditions of humus farming, of me­
chanical weed control, and of the need for large portions of our popula­
tion to be involved in agriculture. Farming was now a business, to be run
as efficiently as any other industrial enterprise. Soil conservation seemed
to be the only major theme from past decades that remained in the modeL
We gave it major attention and resources, but our focus was on correction
of the problems caused by crop technologies, not on prevention of them.
We focused on terraces, levees, and furm ponds to slow and stop the runoff
from the bare-soil com and soybean fields. We were structuring our farms
and our technologies according to valid Newtonian principles, applied with
full intentions to dominate the earth.
There was little or no debate during those years, in the biological sciences
at least, on development direction. The success of current technologies
was so overwhelming that it stifled serious debate of alternatives. The alter­
native farming "schools" were practically nonexistent and certainly in
disrepute. I remember clearly graduate school discussions in 1964 about
the "crackpot Rachel Carson and her whistling in the wind" against the
great benefits of DDT. In looking back on those heady years, I wonder
about our arrogance and narrowness of vision. I also 'Mlnder, parenthetically,
if many of us still remain intellectually in the comfortable era of the early
1960s when we trained. But the results of the narrow focus were far from
being entirely negative. The concentration of scientific and development
resources during the late 1960s and early 1970s achieved dramatic results.

The Green Revolution

Agricultural development trends and breakthroughs up to and including

the Green Revolution are interestingly summarized by Dahlberg (1979).
He gives heavy emphasis to the emerging influence of the foundations and
to international development assistance during the 1960s and 1970s as deter­
mining the development paradigm of the era. Those working in interna­
tional development at the time followed the "commandments" according
to Moser (1969):
• Research to find and develop new and improved farm (and related)
technologies.
• Arranging for the importation and/or domestic production of farm
supplies and equipment needed to put the new technology into use.
A HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 11

• Creating a progressive rural structure, or "organization of the country­

side," that provides channels through which goods and information can
move easily back and forth between each furm and the total society in which
it is located.
• Creating and maintaining adequate incentives for farmers to increase
production.
• Improving agricultural land.
• Educating and training technicians to accomplish all of these tasks
competently.
In the process, the extension agent was seen as the "advisor, teacher,
analyzer, and organizer" (Moser, 1969).
That the approach had significant impact is without question. In spite
of massive and unprecedented increases in population since the 1950s and
in the face of predictions of (and actual instances of) starvation in Asia,
country after country, including India, Bangladesh, China, the Phillippines,
Indonesia, and many others, have achieved food self-sufficiency and even
food surpluses. The approach has worked best, however, in areas with good
soil and water resources where returns to infrastructure development, to
technology application, and to inputs have been high. Farm size, interest­
ingly, has not been a factor in responsiveness where population density
is high and where agriculture remains the predominant employer. In Asia,
at least, mechanization has played only a modest role, limited to a few
key technological areas. This latter distinction is significant because it plays
a major role in the definition of sustainable agriculture for many, if not
most, Third World countries. Those national definitions are now focused
on many of the shortcomings of the Green Revolution model: the problems
of equity, of rural income, of product diversity, of environmental impact,
and of huge neglected areas of poor soil and water resources that must sup­
port increasing numbers of people.

Broadening the Profile for Sustainability

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, several trends or events occurred to
spur agricultural development and thinking beyond the new boundaries of
the early 1960s' model. The increasing awareness of the impact of modern
(industrial) technologies on the environment became clear as we traced
pesticides in our food chains. Crop nutrients began to accumulate in streams
and in underground aquifiers. Water resources became oversubscribed, and
the "spaceship earth" concept was born. An event that shook our con­
sciousness, however, was the energy "shortage" of the early 1970s. For
the first time, we became painfully aware that earth's resources were limited.
12 RICHARD R. HARWOOD

The analysis by Hill and Cleveland (1981) of the energy cost of exploration
and of recovery of oil and gas was reported by Gever et al. (1986):
"In the 1950s, we discovered about 50 barrels of oil for every barrel in­
vested in drilling and pumping. Today, the figure is only five for one. Some­
time between 1994 and 2005 that figure will become one for one. In other
words, perhaps as early as 1994, it will generally become uneconomical
to search for any oil for energy in the United States."
While certainly not everyone shares this view of the short time frame
involved, there is little question that business as usual should be questioned.
For these and for a broad range of other reasons, agricultural development
directions have come under serious debate and analysis. The university­
based scientific communities have been joined by a plethora of private
"think-tank" and industrial groups all making contributions.
From the alternative agriculture point of view, several scenarios for sus­
tainable agriculture have been articulated. Most includeprinciples evolved
during the early 1900s and stress the following (Harwood, 1983):
• The interrelatedness of all parts of a farming system, including the
farmer and his family.
• The importance of the many biological balances in the system.
• The neell to maximize desired biological relationships in the system
and to minimize use of material and practices that disrupt those relationships.
The several modern articulations of world views of "alternative
agriculture" include but are not limited to Berry's The Unsettling ofAmerica
(1988) (stressing the importance of human participation from a morality
standpoint reminiscent of Jefferson), Walters' The Case for Eco-Agn'culture
(1975), Rodale's Breaking New Ground (1983), and Jackson's New Roots
for Agriculture (1980). These authors all derived their thinking from the
alternative agriculture tradition, but they differ markedly in their approaches.
Closely associated with these works are those of the agroecology move­
ment, best known by scientists through the work of Altierri (1987). These
authors combine the scientific method of modern ecology with the older
concept of the scientific agriculturists of learning from nature. Although
the idea seems romantic, it has evolved in an age of realism. Quinney of
New Alchemy wrote: "Today, although we have a better understanding of
the limits of this concept, nature as inspiration is still powerful and in­
creasingly useful" (Quinney, 1987). Perhaps the most eloquent of these
works is Dover and Talbot's To Feed the Earth: Agro-Ecology for Sustainable
Development (1987).
For those who would attempt to articulate any national sustainable agri­
culture paradigm, there are several other key readings: Farmland or Ubste­
land: A Time to Choose (Sampson, 1981); Paying the Price: Pesticide Sub­
A HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 13

sidies in Developing Countries (Repetto, 1985); Defusing the Toxic Threat

(Postel, 1987); Ecological Aspects of Development in the Humid Tropics
(National Academy of Science, 1982); State of the J#Jrld: A J#Jrldwatch
Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society (Brown et al.,
1986); Crop Productivity: Research Imperatives Revisited (Gibbs and
Carlson, 1985); and Agriculture 2000: A Look at the Future (Battelle
Memorial It1stitute, Columbia Division, 1985).

National Agendas for Agricultural Development

A public agenda is an accumulation of issues that attract debate and con­

cern. The contributors include individuals, social groups, institutions, gov­
ernment agencies, and power brokers. Issues achieve agenda status when
they receive widespread and continuing public recognition. Public agenda
items then receive policy status when they receive sanction in the form
of law, funding, or other official pronouncement or action. Present U.S.
agricultural development agenda items can be grouped into the following
five categories (with examples of frequently heard, specific concerns):
• Increase the utility ofagriculture. Maintain adequate production. Pro­
vide adequate livelihood (considering equity, stability, safety, lifestyle) for
a desired number of participants. Provide food of acceptable quality and
diversity (no pesticides, low heavy metals, little fat, good flavor, little pro­
cessing, few preservatives, no antibiotics, regulated levels of synthetic
hormones).
• Increase productivity. Develop more productive biotypes (with pest
resistance, tolerance to adverse conditions). Maintain soil organic matter,
tilth. Maintain crop diversity. Practice rotations. Use integrated animal/
fish/crop/tree systems. Practice nutrient cycling.
• Maintain an environment favorable to humans and most ofother spe­
cies. Protect groundwater from contamination. Reduce or eliminate use
of pesticides. Reduce use of synthetic fertilizers. Encourage wildlife main­
tenance. Recognize animal rights (reduce stress in confinement, provide
for a degree of natural activity).
• Assure the ability to evolve indefinitely. Minimize soil loss (from ero­
sion, conversion to nonagricultural use). Stop overdraft of fossil ground­
water. Reduce energy use (especially of fossil fuels). Develop better tech­
nologies for biological nitrogen fixation. Develop perennial cereals. Maintain
existing genetic diversity.
• Develop patterns ofgeographical distribution and scale (macro struc­
ture) consistent with national agendas. Create adequate physical and in­
stitutional infrastructure. Develop market channels that respond to market
14 RICHARD R. HARWOOD

and social needs. Manage corporate activities that may control portions
of the agricultural sector. Monitor (or manage) land ownership (land is
usually considered to be a quasi-public resource).
Recognition of these points is given or implied in the above definition
of sustainable agriculture. Most of the five categories are recognized in
a current definition (TAC, 1988): Sustainable agriculture should involve
the successful management of resources for agriculture to satisfy chang­
ing human needs while maintaining or enhancing the natural resource base
and avoiding environmental degradation.
The U.S. Agency for International Development (1987) avoids a specific
definition but identifies a long list of parameters that fall into the five sug­
gested categories.
These five categories are purposefully broad to include most possible
items. The breadth is the result of historical process, as we shall see below.
In most countries where debate is prevalent, the concerns are remarkably
similar to those in the United States. The priorities change with resource
base, stage of agricultural d velopment, and national politics. The consis­
tency and speed with which particular items reach policy status depends
upon the size and influence of the proponent group, the perceived seriousness
of the problem, and government responsiveness. Those relationships are
little understood, even here in the United States. They are influenced to
some extent by prominent events, such as pesticide spills, farm bankrupt­
cies, or major disasters.
The public agenda must be both nation- and time-specific. Its establish­
ment is a people-driven process that differs from country to country. A
process of goal-setting, of identifying gaps between existing and desired
future states, and, finally, of priority setting and resource allocation com­
pletes the process. In most countries, neither :furmers nor agricultural scien­
tists are the sole or even the major determinants of what is sustainable.
Their roles in technology development are probably their most significant
contribution.

From Concept to Action

Our concept of the multiple dimensions of a sustainable agriculture is

more broad today than at any time in history. We are more aware of the
potency of technologies, of the fragility of the earth's environment, and
of humankind's ability to disrupt it. We have a notion of earth's limited
resources. This is appropriate at the threshold of our transition from the
age of alchemy to the age of biotechnology.
As we survey our past, it seems that consensus is possible on three rna­
A HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 15

jor points: (I) Agriculture must be increasingly productive and efficient

in resource use, (2) biological processes within agricultural systems must
be much more controlled from within (rather than by external inputs of
pesticides), and (3) nutrient cycles within the farm must be much more
closed.
A less well-recognized point is that crop nutrients must come from man­
agement of nutrient flow into and out of the soil organic matter fraction,
a "farming of the organic matter" rather than a "farming of the soil nutrient
solution." There is ample circumstantial evidence from alternative agri­
culture on this point but, as yet, little scientific evidence. If we are to learn
one central lesson from all of alternative agriculture, I think it would be
this one.
We may deV< 1op the sustainable model for the United States, but how
do we approach sustainable Third World development? No Third World
country has so broad a public agenda for development as do the western
developed nations, nor do they have such a plethora of well-funded public
and private agencies that are contributing to that agenda. Do we take our
own agenda with us when we go to the tropics? Certainly, we must not
ignore the differences in priorities, which is a primary emphasis in Asia,
on rural income and employment as opposed to our own priorities. We
must see the drain of wealth from rural areas as a result of inappropriate
structure of the agricultural system. But should we impose our own priorities
of food safety, of environmental impact, or ofhuman safety in agriculture
on developing countries? We have no ready answers, but we must be sen­
sitive and responsive to national agendas in each country in which we work.
We must choose our attack points carefully, remembering that progress
is most rapid when effort and resources are focused best.
But how about our own agenda for sustainability? As scientists, how do
we react to the realization that we no longer dominate the agenda-setting
process for agriculture. Do we understand the impact of all five areas of
a sustainable profile? If you are a land-grant scientist, how do you relate?
The words of Sandra Batie, in my opinion, are wise counsel: "The new
agendas of a concerned public should be seen neither as a threat nor
as irrelevant to the land-grant tradition but as challenges and opportunities
to better serve the needs of society. Land-grant colleges of agriculture must
embrace opportunities to assist in identifying and designing solutions
which are in our finest tradition of being the 'people's' university" (Batie,
1988).
As we survey the past and then move ahead to determine our future,
we should cherish the diversity of thought and experience that provides
the "raw material" for evolution of a new paradigm. The implementation
16 RICHARD R. HARWOOD

of that new model requires new attitudes, new policies, and new technolo­
gies.
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