Topic: Multiple Access and Links and Protocols: (UNIT-3)

Multi Access Links:

There are two types of Network link
(i) Point to point link
(ii) Broadcast link
(i) Point to point link
 A Point to point link consists of a single sender at one end of the link and a single
receiver at the other end of the link.
 Many link-layer protocols have been designed for point-to-point links;
 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) and
 high-level data link control (HDLC).
(ii) Broadcast link:
 It can have multiple sending and receiving nodes all connected to the same, single,
shared broadcast channel.
 Ethernet and wireless LANs are examples of broadcast link-layer technologies.
Multiple Access Protocols:
These Protocols are divided into three types:
(a) Channel partitioning protocols,
(b) Random access protocols, and
(c) taking-turns protocols
(a)Channel Partitioning
protocols:
There are two techniques used for partitioning a broadcast channel bandwidth among all the nodes
sharting the channel
 time-division multiplexing (TDM) and
 frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

For example, suppose the channel supports N nodes and that the transmission rate of the channel is R bps.
 TDM divides time into time frames and further divides each time frame into N time slots.
 A third channel partitioning protocol is code division multiple access (CDMA).
 While TDM and FDMassign time slots and frequencies, respectively, to the nodes,
 CDMA assigns a different code to each node. Each node then uses its unique code to encode
the data bits it sends.
(b) Random Access Protocols:
In a random access protocol, a transmitting node always transmits at the full rate of the channel, namely,
R bps. When there is a collision, each node involved in the collision repeatedly retransmits its frame (that
is, packet) until its frame gets through without a collision.
There are Three types of Random Access Protocols:
(a) Slotted ALOHA protocols
(b) Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) protocols.
(c ) Carrier sense multiple access / Collision
detection.
(a) Slotted ALOHA
Its simplest random access protocols .Its has following constraints(restriction)
 All frames consist of exactly L bits.
 Time is divided into slots of size L/R seconds (that is, a slot equals the time to transmit one frame).
 Nodes start to transmit frames only at the beginnings of slots.
 The nodes are synchronized so that each node knows when the slots begin.
 If two or more frames collide in a slot, then all the nodes detect the collision event before the
slot ends.
 Slotted ALOHA is also decentralized because each node detects Collisions and
independently decides when to transmit.
 It allows a node to transmit continuously at the full rate R, when that node is the only active node.
(b) Carrier Sense multiple access(CSMA) protocols:
In both slotted and pure ALOHA, a node’s decision to transmit is made independently of the activity of
the other nodes attached to the broadcast channel. In particular, a node neither pays attention to whether
another node happens to be transmitting when it begins to transmit, nor stops transmitting if another node
begins to interfere with its transmission.
In order to overcome this collision, The CSMA Protocols was created. To increase the amount of data
and decrease the amount of time following rules are there.
 Listen before speaking. If someone else is speaking, wait until they are finished. In the
networking world, this is called carrier sensing—a node listens to the channel before
transmitting. If a frame from another node is currently being transmitted into the channel, a
node then waits until it detects no transmissions for a short amount of time and then begins
transmission.
 If someone else begins talking at the same time, stop talking. In the networking world, this
is called collision detection—a transmitting node listens to the channel while it is transmitting. If it
detects that another node is transmitting an interfering frame, it stops transmitting and waits a
random amount of time before repeating the sense-and-transmit-when-idle cycle.
(c )Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection(CSMA/CD)
 In CSMA nodes do not perform collision detection; both B and D continue to transmit their
frames in their entirety even though a collision has occurred. When a node performs collision
detection, it ceases transmission as soon as it detects a collision.
Figure 6.13 shows the same scenario as in Figure 6.12, except that the two nodes each abort
their transmission a short time after detecting a collision.
 Hence, adding collision detection to a multiple access protocol will help protocol performance
by not transmitting a useless, damaged (by interference with a frame from another node) frame
in its entirety.
(iii )Taking Turns Protocols:
(a) Polling Protocol
(b) Token-passing protocol.
(a ) polling protocol. The polling protocol requires one of the nodes to be designated as a master node.
The master node polls each of the nodes in a round-robin fashion.Master node first sends a message to
node 1, saying that it (node 1) can transmit up to some maximum number of frames. After node 1
transmits some frames, the master node tells node 2 it (node 2)as so on.
Advantages:
 It eliminates the collisions and empty slots.
 It gives much higher efficiency
Drawback
 a polling delay
 if master node fails, the entire channel becomes inoperative.
(b) token-passing protocol:
 A small, special-purpose frame known as a token is exchanged among the nodes in some
fixed order.
For example, node 1 might always send the token to node 2, node 2 might always send the token
to node 3, as so on.When a node receives a token, it holds onto the token only if it has some frames to
transmit; otherwise, it immediately forwards the token to the next node.
 Token passing is decentralized and highly efficient.

Topic: Switched Local Area Networks(Unit-3)

The above diagram shows a switched local network connecting three departments, two servers and a
router with four switches. Because these switches operate at the link layer, they switch link-layer frames
rather than network-layer.
It uses link layer addresses to forward link-layer frames through networks switches.
(i) Link-Layer Addressing and ARP:
 Hosts and routers has link-layer address.
 Address Resolution Protocol(ARP) which provides mechanism to translate IP address to link-
layer addresses.