Experiment#1: P-N Junction Diode Forward Characteristics
AIM:
1. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.
2. To find cut-in Voltage for Silicon P-N Junction diode.
3. To find static and dynamic resistances in forward and biased conditions for Si P-N Junction
diode.
Components:
Name Qty
Diodes IN 4007(Si) 1
Resistor 1KΩ, 1
Equipment:
Name Range Qty
Bread Board - 1
Regulated Power Supply 0-30V DC 1
Digital Ammeter 0-200µA/20mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-2V/20V DC 1
Connecting Wires
Theory:
Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities into the other
side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a Junction called
depletion region (this region is depleted off the charge carriers). This Region gives rise to a
potential barrier Vᵞ called Cut- in Voltage. This is the voltage across the diode at which it starts
conducting. It can conduct beyond this Potential.
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The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is
connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to cathode (N- side)
then diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential barrier at the
junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the holes from p-
side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a forward current
(injected minority current – due to holes crossing the junction and entering N-side of the diode,
due to electrons crossing the junction and entering P-side of the diode). Assuming current flowing
through the diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short-circuited switch.
If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the input
supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this condition
an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier at the
junction. Both the holes on p-side and electrons on n-side tend to move away from the junction
thereby increasing the depleted region. However, the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a
small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This small current
is due to thermally generated carriers. Assuming current flowing through the diode to be
negligible, the diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch.
The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by following equation:
I =I0 (evD/(ꞃvT) - 1)
Where,
If=current flowing in the diode
I0=reverse saturation current
VD=voltage applied to the diode
VT=volt-equivalent of temperature=kT/q=T/11,600=26mV (@ room temp).
Ꞃ=1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si)
It is observed that Ge diode has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The reverse
saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.
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Circuit Diagram
Fig.1 Experimental setup of forward Biased characteristics of Diode
Procedure:
Forward Biased Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1 above using silicon PN Junction diode.
2. Vary Vin gradually in steps of 0.3 volts up to 6 volts and at an increment of 3 volts onwards and
note down VD and the corresponding readings of ID. Step Size is not fixed because of nonlinear
curve.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.
4. Plot, the I-V characteristics of diode, ID vs. VD and determine,
i. Cut in voltage, Vᵞ
ii. Static forward Resistance, R dc = VD/ ID Ω
iii. Dynamic forward Resistance, r ac = ∆ VD /∆ ID Ω
Tabular column:
RPS Voltage, Vin (V) VD (mV) ID (mA)
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Experiment #2: Half Wave Rectifier
(a) Aim:
1. To examine the input and output waveform of half wave rectifier
2. To find ripple factor.
(b) i. Equipment Required:
1. Bread Board
2. Oscilloscope
3. Connecting wires
4. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
5. Transformer (230V-12V)
6. BNC probes
ii. Components Required:
1. Capacitor (100μF)
2. Diode (1N4007)
3. Resistor (1kΩ)
(c) Theory:
In Halfwave rectifier there is one diode, transformer and a load resistance. During the
positive half cycle of the input, diode is ON and it conducts current and flows through
load resistance, voltage is developed across it. During the negative half cycle the diode is
reversed biased, no current conduction so no current through load resistance and no
voltage across load resistance.
(d) Circuit Diagram
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(e) Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram without connecting the capacitor.
2. Observe the input voltage waveform across the secondary of the transformer and also
across the output in oscilloscope.
3. Based on your observations, can you explain why this is called half wave rectification?
4. Draw the waveform of the input and output in your book as seen from the oscilloscope,
noting down the peak voltage, frequency and period. (Attach full screenshot for multisim
simulation).
5. Measure ac and dc voltages at the output using DMM by Keeping the DMM in DC mode
to measure dc voltage and DMM in AC mode to measure RMS voltage
6. Determine the ripple factor by completing table 1 below and compare this practical value
to the theoretical value.
7. Now, connect the capacitor across the load resistor and repeat steps 4-6 to determine the
ripple factor by completing table 2.
8.
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Theoretical calculations for ripple factor
Without filter:
Vrms = Vm/2
Vdc = Vm/П
Ripple factor, r =√ (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 =1.21
With Filter:
Ripple factor, r = 1/ (2√3 f C R)
Experiment #3: Full Wave Rectifier using Centre-Tap (C.T) Transformer
(a) Aim:
1. To examine the input and output waveform of C.T transformer full wave rectifier.
2. To find ripple factor.
(b) i. Equipments Required:
1. Bread Board
2. Oscilloscope
3. Connecting wires
4. Digital Multimeter
5. Center-tapped Transformer (230V-12Vx2)
6. BNC probes
ii. Components Required:
1. Capacitor (100μF)
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2. Diode (1N4007) x2
3. Resistor (1kΩ)
(c) Theory:
During positive half cycle Diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reversed biased so current
conducts through D1 due to which voltage is developed across the load resistance and during
negative half cycle Diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reversed biased so current conducts
through D2 due to which voltage is developed across the load resistance.
(d) Circuit Diagram:
(e) Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram without connecting the capacitor.
2. Observe the input voltage waveform across the secondary of the transformer and also
across the output in oscilloscope.
3. Based on your observations, can you explain why this is called full-wave rectification?
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4. Draw the waveform of the input and output in your book as seen from the oscilloscope,
noting down the peak voltage, frequency and period. (Attach full screenshot for multisim
simulation).
5. Measure ac and dc voltages at the output using DMM by Keeping the DMM in DC mode
to measure dc voltage and DMM in AC mode to measure RMS voltage
6. Determine the ripple factor by completing table 1 below and compare this practical value
to the theoretical value,
7. Now, connect the capacitor across the load resistor and repeat steps 4-6 to determine the
ripple factor by completing table 2.
Theoretical calculations for ripple factor without filter:
Vrms = Vm/ √2
Vdc = 2Vm/П
(i)Without filter:
Ripple factor, r = √ (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 = 0.483
(ii)With filter:
Ripple factor, r = 1/ (4√3 f C RL)
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Experiment #4: Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
(a) Aim:
1. To examine the input and output waveform of bridge rectifier
2. To find ripple factor.
(b) i. Equipment Required:
1. Bread Board
2. Oscilloscope
3. Connecting wires
4. Digital Multimeter
5. Center-tapped Transformer (230V-12V)
6. BNC probes
ii. Components Required:
1. Capacitor (100μF)
2. Diode (1N4007) x4
3. Resistor (1kΩ)
(c) Theory:
In the first positive half cycle of the AC signal, the diodes D1 and D3 become forward biased and
start conducting. At the same time, the diodes D2 and D4 will be reverse biased and will not
conduct. The current will flow through the load resistor via the two forward-biased diodes.
Now, during the negative half cycle of the AC signal, the diodes D2 and D4 will be forward biased
and diodes D1 and D3 will become reverse biased. The current will flow through the load resistor
via the two forward-biased diodes. It is worth noting at this point that the current that will be
flowing through the load resistor will have the same direction as it had with the positive half cycle.
Therefore, no matter the polarity of the input signal, the output polarity will always be the same.
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We can also say that the negative half cycle of the AC signal has been inverted and is appearing
as a positive voltage at the output.
(e) Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram without connecting the capacitor.
2. Observe the input voltage waveform across the secondary of the transformer and also
across the output in oscilloscope.
3. Based on your observations, can you explain why this is called full-wave rectification?
4. Draw the waveform of the input and output in your book as seen from the oscilloscope,
noting down the peak voltage, frequency and period. (Attach full screenshot for multisim
simulation).
5. Measure ac and dc voltages at the output using DMM by Keeping the DMM in DC mode
to measure dc voltage and DMM in AC mode to measure RMS voltage
6. Determine the ripple factor by completing table 1 below and compare this practical value
to the theoretical value,
7. Now, connect the capacitor across the load resistor and repeat steps 4-6 to determine the
ripple factor by completing table 2.
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Theoretical calculations for ripple factor without filter:
Vrms = Vm/ √2
Vdc = 2Vm/П
(i)Without filter:
Ripple factor, r = √ (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 = 0.483
(ii)With filter:
Ripple factor, r = 1/ (4√3 f C RL)
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