Le Viet Tien, Ph.

D
EPSD, SEE, HUST

CONTENTS

1. Generality
2. Per Unit System
3. Fault Calculations

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 1. Generality

• Conception (Standard IEC 60 909):

Rk Lk ib Rk, Xk: Short circuit impedance
R, X : Grid and load impedance
ik R
ik: Short-circuit current
K
i”k~: Periodic component of ik
L
ik-: Aperiodic component of ik

Where

1. Generality

• Classification:
Far-from-generator
short circuit (a),

or
Near-to-generator
short circuit (b),

or
(IrG : Rated current of
any machine)

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 1. Generality

• Types of faults :
The average probability of
– Balanced faults: fault occurrence
Three phase grounded or Fault type Probability of
ungrounded fault (3) occurrence
– Unbalanced faults: SLG Faults 70%
Phase-to-phase L-L faults 15%
ungrounded fault (L-L)
2 LG faults 10%
Phase-to-phase grounded
fault (2 LG) 3 faults 5%
Phase-to-ground fault
(SLG)

1. Generality

• Causes :
– Overtemperatures
due to excessively
high overcurrent.
– Disruptive discharges
due to overvoltage.
– Arcing due to
moisture together
with impure air
especially on
insulators.

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 1. Generality

• Effects :
– Interruption of power supply
– Destruction of power components
– Development of unacceptable mechanical and thermal
stresses in electrical operational equipment.

• Purposes of fault calculation :

– Equipment sizing
– Protective device setting
– Power system stability analysis

2. Per Unit System

• Definitions : A per unit quantity is a normalized quantity with

respect to the chosen base value

Actual value
p.u. value =
Reference or base value of the same dimension

• Quantities involved : Current (I), voltage (V), complex power

(S) and impedance (Z) in three phase power system.

; ; ;

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 2. Per Unit System

• Conversion between different bases :

: Old base system
: New base system

• Ohm system :
V (in Volt), I (in Ampere), S (in Volt-Ampere), Z (in Ohm).

• Percentage rating system (%/MVA system) :

Quantities are given in % of equipment rating – generator’s or
motor’s reactance %, transformer’s impedance voltage %.

3. Fault calculations
3.1. Overviews

• Standards : IEC 60909

• Method of short-circuit
calculation :
Equivalent voltage source
at the fault location.

Voltage factor c for the calculation of

Nominal system
phase-to-phase voltage Vn Maximum short- Minimum short-
circuit currents (cmax) circuit currents (cmin)

LV (100V to 1000V)
Upper voltage tolerance +6% 1.05 0.95
Upper voltage tolerance +10% 1.1 0.95
MV and HV (1kV upto 550kV) 1.1 1

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 3. Fault calculations
3.2. Assumptions

• Assumptions
– Fault calculation in distribution system.
– The passive loads and conductor capacitances can be
neglected.
– The step setting of the transformers do not have to be
considered
– The excitation of the generators do not have to be considered.
– The time and position dependence of the previous load
(loading state) of the network does not have to be considered.

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3. Fault calculations
3.3. Equipment impedances

• Impedances of three-phase operational equipment

– Network feed-ins:

Network

: Initial symmetrical short-circuit

RS power at the interface S.
: Network internal impedance
XS
Q
: Voltage factor (IEC 60 909-0)

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 3. Fault calculations
3.3. Equipment impedances

• Impedances of three-phase operational equipment

– Synchronous machine:

: Initial (subtransient) reactance

For low voltage generator.

For high voltage (>1kV) generator.

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3. Fault calculations
3.3. Equipment impedances

• Impedances of three-phase operational equipment

– Asynchronous machine:

ZM : Impedance of motor
UrM : Rated voltage of motor
IrM : Rated current of motor
SrM : Rated apparent power of motor
PrM : Rated active power of motor
Ian/IrM : Ratio of locked-rotor current to rated current of motor

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7
 3. Fault calculations
3.3. Equipment impedances

• Impedances of three-phase operational equipment

– Line and transformer impedances are calculated the same as
for power flow analysis (Chapter 5).
– Do not take small impedances into account (the likes of line
admittance, transformer magnitizing reactance…).

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3. Fault calculations
3.4. Impedance correction factors

• Network transformers (KT factor)

– Applied to the nominal rated impedance values of two-winding
and three-winding network transformers.
– The correction factor covers transformers with and without on-
load tap-changers if the transformer’s voltage ratio is different
from the ratio of the base voltages of the network.

ZT = RT + jXT: Uncorrected rated transformer impedance

KT : The correction factor

xT : p.u. rated transformer reactance

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8
 3. Fault calculations
3.4. Impedance correction factors

• Directly connected synchronous generators and

compensators (KG factor)
– Introduced to compensate for the use of the equivalent
voltage source instead of the subtransient voltage E” behind
subtransient reactance calculated at rated operation.

ZG = RG + jXd”: Uncorrected rated generator subtransient

impedance.
xd”: p.u. generator subtransient
KG : The correction factor
reactance

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3. Fault calculations
3.4. Impedance correction factors

• Power station unit (combined a synchronous

generator and a step-up transformer)
– Transformer with on-load-tap-changer

pT : Permanent
– Transformer without on-load-tap-changer off-load tap

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 3. Fault calculations
3.3. Equipment impedances

• Impedances of three-phase operational equipment

– Line and transformer impedances are calculated the same as
for power flow analysis (Chapter 5).
– Do not take small impedances into account (the likes of line
admittance, transformer magnitizing reactance…).

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3. Fault calculations
3.5. Symmetrical components
Negative Zero
sequence sequence
system system

= + +

3 phase Positive
asymmetrical sequence
system system

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 3. Fault calculations
3.5. Symmetrical components

• Positive sequence impedance (Z1): Impedance of operational

equipment in three phase equivalent circuit.
• Negative sequence impedance (Z2): The same as the positive
sequence impedance for operational equipment without load.
Impedances are different when the machines are operating.
• Zero sequence impedance (Z0): The circuitry of neutral point is
considered (ungrounded, grounded through neutralizer coil,
grounded through a resistance or reactance, direct grounding)

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3. Fault calculations
3.6. Short-circuit current

• Three phase short-circuit (UR=US=UT=0, IR+IS+IT=0)

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 3. Fault calculations
3.6. Short-circuit current

• Two phase to ground short circuit (IR=0, IS=IT, US=UT=0)

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3. Fault calculations
3.6. Short-circuit current

• Phase-to-phase short circuit (IR=0, IS=-IT, US=UT=0)

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 3. Fault calculations
3.6. Short-circuit current

• Single phase-to-ground short circuit (IS=IT=0, UR=0)

– Smallest short-circuit current

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3. Fault calculations
3.6. Short-circuit current

• Short circuit at the terminals of asynchronous motor

– IEC 60909  the contribution of
asynchronous machine can be
neglected if

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 3. Fault calculations
3.6. Short-circuit current

• Peak short circuit current (iP)

: Initial peak current factor

Standard values
<1.4: Public networks
1.8<<2.04: Immediate
downstream from transformer
feeder.
IEC 60909 factor :

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3. Fault calculations
3.6. Short-circuit current

• Symmetrical breaking current (Ia)

– For synchronous machine

For far-from-generator
short circuit

For near-to-generator short

circuit

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 – For asynchronous machine

– For networks

For more exact procedure of calculation

With

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Ex.

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Reference

• Ismail Kasikci, Short circuits in power Systems,

Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2002.
• Nasser Tleis, Power Systems Modelling and Fault
Analysis - Theory and Practice, Elsevier Ltd., 2008.

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