International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)

ISSN: 2319-7064
SJIF (2022): 7.942

The Charvaka Philosophy - Materialism

Robin Ghosh

Abstract: Materialism is the name given to the metaphysical doctrine which holds that matter is the only reality. The doctrine tries to
explain mind and consciousness as the products of matter. In general outlook materialism represents the tendency that seeks to reduce
the higher to the lower or explain the higher phenomena in the light of the lower ones. In this respect it is opposed to spiritual
interpretations of the universe. Though materialism in some form or the other has always been present in India, and occasional
references are found in the Vedas, the Buddhistic literature, the Epics as well as in the later philosophical works, we do not find any
systematic work on materialism, nor any organised school of followers as other philosophical schools possess. But almost every work of
other school’s state for refutation, the materialistic views. Our knowledge of Indian materialism is chiefly based on these. Charvaka was
even originally a common description name given to a materialist either because he preaches the doctrine of eat, drink and be merry.1
Some writers again regard Brhaspati as the founder of materialism.

Keywords: Epistemology, Inference, God, Religious Superstition, Ethics and Dr. Radhakrishnan

1. Observation man is a part, exists objectively and is therefore not a

product of his brain but exists in dependently of any
A materialist is called Charvaka or Lokatika consciousness.
• recognition of the fact that the external world manifests
We confined during our observation that Charvakas is the itself in a law governed fashion, the laws being capable
final say. Perception is the only valid source of knowledge. of change only through physical action rather than
But whoever be the founder of India materialism, Charvaka through ideas, magic, or prayer.
has become synonymous with materialist. The word used for • negation of the existence of supernatural forces, that the
materialism is also lokaya mata i. e. the view of common view of the world develops spontaneously, without
people. A materialist is originally called also lokayaitika. outside interference.
• recognition of man’s perceptions of the objects or
The Charvaka Epistemology phenomena of the outside world (sense experiences) as
The entire philosophy of the Charvaka may be said to the only source of knowledge.
depend logically on their epistemology or the theory of • recognition of the fact that the nature of man’s life and
knowledge. The main problems of epistemology are: How activity is determined by the conditions of his life and not
far can we know reality ? How does knowledge originate by a deity.
and develop ? This last question involves the problem: What • Some of these features are inherent, in some form to a
are the different sources of knowledge. This problem forms certain extent, in many systems of Indian philosophy of
one of the chief topics of Indian epistemology. Knowledge the medieval period and even in the modern times.
of reality or valid cognition is called prama and the source of
such knowledge is called pramana. The Charvaka holds that The idea of existence of God
perception is the only pramana or dependable source of Charvaka rejected the idea of the existence of God,
knowledge. For establishing this position he criticizes the recognizing four material elements as the substance, earth,
possibility of other sources of knowledge like inference and water, fire, and air. Combination of these elements produce
testimony which are regarded as valid pramanas by many all objects of phenomena of nature, both material and
philosophers. spiritual. The soul is a body endowed with consciousness,
emerges from unconscious elements as their temporary in a
Charvaka has denied everything except sense perception specific form under definite conditions. In substantiating this
Inference is not certain proposition Bhisan said that a man could not get drunk by
If inference is to regarded as pranama, it must yield eating some rice and a kind of molasses made of beetroot. A
knowledge about which we can have no doubt and which mixture of rice and molasses, however, is used to prepare
must be true to reality. But inference cannot fulfill these wine man can drunk, consciousness is nothing but the result
conditions, because when we infer, for example, the of a certain process of combining material elements. A
existence of fire in a mountain from the perception of smoke man’s death signifies simultaneous destruction of both
in it, we take a leap in the dark, from the perceived smoke to consciousness and soul. A Charvaka named Ajita
the unperceived fire. A logician like the Naiyayika will Kesakambalin (6th Century BC) said that both a wise man
perhaps point out that such a leap is justified by the previous and a fool die along with the body, both are dead and have
knowledge of the invariable competence between smoke and no existence after death.
fire and the inference stated more fully would be: All cases
of smoke are causes of fire, this (mountain) is a case of Decried Religious Superstition
smoke, therefore this is a cause of fire. The Charvakas decried religious superstition which kept the
people ignorant and oppressed, and opposed their view of
To characterize the philosophical materialism of the sutras cognition as the result of sense perception to religious
period it is important to single out the following general vision. The Charvaka materialism is characterized by direct
feathers. orientation against idealist and religious doctrines, the desire
• recognition of the fact that the external world, of which to prove the untenability of idealism and to denain the falsity
Volume 13 Issue 5, May 2024
Fully Refereed | Open Access | Double Blind Peer Reviewed Journal
www.ijsr.net
Paper ID: ES24525124254 DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.21275/ES24525124254 1525
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
SJIF (2022): 7.942
and deception of religion and its preachers. Thus, the turns the material elements into this material world? In reply
charvakas main purpose was denouncing Brahmanist charvakas states that the material elements themselves have
ideology rather than creating a consistent philosophical God earth its fixed nature (svabhava). It is by the nature and
system. laws inherent in them that they combine together to form the
world. There is no necessity for God. There is not proof that
The doctrine charvaks Lokayatiks can be reduced to the the objects of the world are products of any design. They can
following propositions. be explained more reasonably as the fortuitous products of
the elements, the Charvakas, therefore prefer atheism.
1) Four material element (mahabhuta) are the basis of all
that is: fire, earth, water & air. 2. Ethics
These elements are spontaneously active with a force of their Ethics is the science of morality. It discusses problem like.
own (svabhava) inherent in them. What is the highest goal or summumbonism man can
achieve? What should be the end of human conduct? What is
2) Only “this world” loka exists; there is not hereafter or the standard of moral judgement? The Charvakas discuss
life after death.3 that is, after man’s death, the life is these ethical problems in conformity with their metaphysical
neither continued “there” (that is in the Brahman - theories.
Atman world) nor revived “here” (on this earth). The
Charvakas said: Some Indian philosophers like the Mimanasakas believe that
While life is yours, live joyously: None can escape the highest goal of human like is heaven (sevarga) which is a
Death’s searching eye; When once this frame of ours state of unalloyed bliss that can be attained hereafter by
they burn performing here the Vedic rites. The Charvaka rejects this
How shall it ever again return ?4 view because it is based on the unproved existence of life
3) There are no supernatural (divine) forces. God is an after death! Heaven and hell are the inventions of the priests
invention of the rich to dupe the poor. Charvakas whose professional interest lies in coaxing, threatening and
taught that the religion of Brahmanism, just as any making people perform the rituals. Enlightened men will
other religion, was untenable and harmful for it refuse to be duped by them.
distracted the attention and strength of the poor
towards imaginary gods, offering sacrifices to Many other philosophers regard liberation as the highest
unknown forces, listening to obstruct preaching. goal of human life. Liberation again, is conceived as the
Religious writing was based on the fantasies of a total destruction of all sufferings. Some think it can be
certain group of persons materially interested in all attained only after death, when the soul is free from the
this. body, and others believe it can be attained in this life. But
4) There is no soul – in the sense in which the ministers the Charvaka holds that none of these views stands to
of religious cults and in agreement with the latter, the reason. If liberation is free som from its bondage, freedom
philosophers used the term. It is matter that thinks, from soul from the bondage to physical existence, it is
rather than the soul which is alleged to exist abused because there is no soul. “But if liberation means the
independently of matter. attainment of a state free from all pain, this very life, it is
5) The law of karma (requital for both good and bad also an impossible ideal. Existence in the body is bound up
deeds) is an invention of the adherents of religion with pleasure as well as pain. We can only try to minimize
employed also by idealistic philosophers. The source pain and enjoy pleasure as much as we can. Liberation in the
of evil on this earth should be booked for in the cruelty sense of complete cessation of sufferings can only means
and injustice existing in society rather than in the death.5 Those who try to attain in life a state free from
properties of human nature and inevitable sufferings pleasures and pains by rigorously suppressing the natural
said to be predetermined from on high. appetites, thinking that all pleasures arising out of their
6) The only source of knowledge of nature is sense gratification are mixed with pain, act like fools. For no wise
perception. Only direct perception (through the five man would reject the Kernel because of the husk’ nor ‘give
senses) gives man genuine knowledge (pratyaksa). eating fish because there are bones’ nor ‘cease to grow crops
Only that exists which can be directly perceived. That because there are animals to destroy them, ‘nor stop cooking
which cannot be perceived does not exist such as God. his food because beggars might ask for a share’. If we
Soul, and heavenly kingdom etc. remember that out existence is confined to the existence of
the body and to this life, we must regard the pleasures
According to the Charvakas, “God whose existence cannot arising in the body as the only good things we can obtain.
be perceived fores no better that the soul. The material We should not throw away the opportunities of enjoying this
elements produce the world, and the supposition of a creator life, in the future hope of enjoyment here after. ‘Rather a
is unnecessary. The objection may be raised. Can the pigeon today then a peacock tomorrow. ‘A sure shell
material elements by themselves give rise to this wonderful (course) is better than a doubtful golden coin’. Who is that
world? We find that even the production of an object like an fool who would entrust the money in hand to the custody of
earthen jar requires, in addition to clay which is its material others’? 6
cause, a pother who is the efficient cause that shapes the
material into the desired form. The four elements supply The goal of a human life, is therefore to attain the maximum
only the material cause of the world. Do we not require an amount of pleasure, in this life, avoiding pain as far as
efficient cause, like God as the shaper and designer who possible. A good life is a life of maximum enjoyment. A
Volume 13 Issue 5, May 2024
Fully Refereed | Open Access | Double Blind Peer Reviewed Journal
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Paper ID: ES24525124254 DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.21275/ES24525124254 1526
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
SJIF (2022): 7.942
good action is one which leads to a balance of pleasure and a were with these three principles.
bad action is one which brings about more pain and pleasure.
Thus Charvaka ethics may be called, therefore, hedonism or Materialism in Jainism
the theory that pleasure is the highest goal. The basic premise of Jainism is that the ultimate basic of all
that is substance which can be extended and unextended.
Liberation in the sense of destruction of all sufferings can be Extended substance, in its own turn, is divided into living
obtained only by death and no wise man would willingly (jiva) and non - living (ajiva). The living substance, or the
work for that end. Wealth and enjoyment are the only souls have consciousness, these are the “subjects” in the
rational ends that a wise man can to achieve. But enjoyment philosophical sense, so to speak. Non - living substances
is the ultimate end, wealth is not an end in itself, it is good (ajivas) or objcts are matter (pudgala) space, time, time,
only as means to enjoyment. dharma (the condition of motion) and adharma (the
condition of rest. Jainists recognize two kinds of changes (1)
The Charvakas are against the performance of religious loss of old qualities (gunas) and acquisition of new ones (2)
ceremonies with the object of either attaining heaven or change of form. Changes in the world are due to
avoiding hell or propitiating departed souls. They raise disintegration or merging and combination of atoms.
cheap laughter at the customary rites. If the good offered
during funeral ceremony (sraddha) for the departed soul can The Philosophy of Buddhism
appease hunger, what is the use of traveler’s taking food
with them? Why should not his people make some offerings Along with Christianity and Islam, Buddhism is know to be
in the name at home to satisfy his hunger? Similarly, food one of the three wide spread religions. The adherents of
offered on the ground floor should satisfy a person living Buddhism have always endeavored to give a profound
upstairs? If the priests really believe, as they say, that philosophical substantiation to their teaching. Buddhism,
animals killed at a sacrifices (yajna) are sure to reach however, is not exceptional in the sense: in India many
heaven, why do they not rather sacrifice their old parents representatives of the dominant ideology have always
instead of animals and make heaven sure for them. Why do believed that philosophy is the theoretical substantiation of
they not sacrifice their own child with the hope of going to religion, while religion is practical philosophy Buddhism
heaven religion is thus reduced to morality and morality to rose against the senseless sacrifices and, in the first place,
the search of pleasure. The ethics of Charvaka is only the against him to them the sacrifices were offered against the
logical outcome of the materialistic metaphysics. God Brahma, declaring him to be non - existent. The cut of
someone who never existed is truly meaningless. The sacred
The materialism of Samkhya Philosophy texts of Buddhists were gathered and given final shape some
The founder of Samkhya philosophical system and the two conturies after Gautam Buddha’s death. They were
author of Kama Sutra Kapil (6th to 5th C) primarily called Tri Pataka (Three Baskets) Buddhism as a system is
principle is that the world is material. Matter (prakriti) is the heterogeneous; there is a great number of schools, Trends
basis of everything that is, it is the basis of everything, that and directions in it. However, the way to an understanding
is, it is omnipresent, eternal and one. The motion of prakriti of all numerous Buddhistic doctrines lies through
is just as eternal as prakariti itself. Primordially, prakriti has comprehending their philosophical bases.
neither beginning nor end. Kapil wrote that the world was
not created, and therefore there was no creator, the world Thus, Buddhism does not recognize qualitative definiteness
itself was the cause of the world, the world developed of objects and phenomena. This qualitative definiteness is
gradually. Kapil used this material doctrine of the cause-and- infinitesimal (in magnitude and time) states (moments or
effect links to substantiate his atheism and to criticize the flares) (carriers) and we therefore cannot speak of any object
religion of Brahmanism. He wrote that if the first cause is or phenomena as the subject of existence, that is, we cannot
God (Brahma) as the world is the effect, there is a say that they achially exist. Just as a lamp appears a moving
discrepancy between cause and effect. There can, however object to the observer, whereas in actual fact there is a new
be no discrepancy between cause and effect. The cause of flare of light at each given moment, any other material
this world is matter (prakriti). The universe is the result of element (e. g. colours, sounds, tastes, scents, and tactile
modifications of matter. In criticizing Machism, Lenin impressions) is nothing but a chain of repeating flares.
pointed out “The question of causality is particularly
important in determining the philosophical important in The Madhyamika School of Sunyabad (a teaching in the
determining the philosophical issue of any of the recent void) adhered to a third view. The founder of the thait
“isms” 7. School, Nagarjuna (1st to 2nd centuries C. E) believed that
the Sarvastevadins and Yogacharas went to extremes and
According to Samkhya Doctrine, prakriti consists of three thei approach was one - sided generally speaking, all objects
forces or gunas sattva, rajas, and tomas. Sattva is regarded as and phenomena of the surrounding world, be asserted, can
something light and illuminating, rojas, motivating and be approached from four standing points.
movable tonas, heavy and restraining. Analysis of the 1) ‘That’ is, for we see it, hear it touch it, or taste it, that is
Samkhya Karika shows that in effect sattva is potential perceived it inone way or another through our sense
consciousness, rojas, the source of motion action, and organs. In short, “that” exists (absolute beings)
development, tomas is that which restrains action and slows 2) “That” is not (absolute non - beings) for that is
down development. The gunas are a kind of primary ephemeral, transient, dependent on another “that”
principles mass (tamas), energy (rojas), and the conscious changes with each passing moment (“flash”) passes into
principle (attva) 8 Everything in nature is charged, as, if another state, becoming some other “that” the latter

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Fully Refereed | Open Access | Double Blind Peer Reviewed Journal
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Paper ID: ES24525124254 DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.21275/ES24525124254 1527
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
SJIF (2022): 7.942
becomes a third “that” etc adinfitum (“the external harmony of mineral man, vegetable man, and animal
stream or whirlwind”). man. The vital properties of the systems being
3) “That simultaneously is and is not, i. e. is both exists synthesized (mineral pleasure, “vegetable pushing”, and
and does not exist. “animal cunning”) became here. The human man
4) “That” neither is nor is nor is not i. e. it neither exist nor generalizes the life experiences accumulated by
does not exist. generations and assimilator the surrounding world
gradually farcing himself from the power of the
Declaring all these viewpoints to be one sided and non - spontaneous laws of nature. He begins to act on the
genuine. Nagarjuna formulated his own theory in opposition environment himself, changing it and subordinating it to
to them, which he termed the theory of dependent origin his interests and needs. He tills the soil, breeds cattle
(pratitya samutpada) According to this theory, only that practices various crafts. He can for instance, take wild
object truly exists which exists by itself, that is not caused flowers and cultivate them making them into a charming
by some outside factor. In replying to his opponents who garden. He studies himself the laws of life, not letting
hold that the world is red, as testified by our everyday his future to become the product of chance. In general,
experiences and reasoning Nagarjuna says experience and Patanjali concludes the inevitability disappears, the
reason do not give us genuine knowledge. The evidence of blind power of necessity cases to rule and the sould
data of our pramana (thje means of proof sensatious, shakes off the fetters of prakrati (matter) thus becoming
perceptions and syllogisms) is unreliable. free.

Patanjali was one of the first ancient thinkers to formulate 3. Summary and Conclusion
and elaborate on the idea that man is a system (microcosm,
or the universe in miniature”) consisting of four basic Like the Epicureans Greece, the Charvakas in India have
components – mineral, vegetable, animal and human proper. been more hated than understood. ‘Charvaka’ in the mind of
people at iarge is a term of reproach. But it is useful for a
Mineral man – At this level, man is regarded as a subsystem student to remember as well that Indian philosophy owes to
consisting entirely of the material of the mineral kingdom. Charvaka. Skepticism or agnosticism is only the expression
The mineral kingdom is taken to mean here the whole of the of a free mind that refuses to accept traditional wisdom
inorganic world, the whole of the universe, including the without a through criticism. Kant, one of the greatest
“inanimate bodies” of this planet. The mineral kingdom has philosophers of the west, recognized his debt to seepticism
always been in motion”. when he declared: “The seepticism of home roused me from
my dogmatic slumber”.
“All this was indistinguishable, fluid ……………
Everything was in motion”. And we may say that Charvaka similarly saved Indian
1) Mineral man is the highest product of the mineral philosophy from dogmatism to a great extent. As noted
kingdom, a living and active human subsystem already, every system of Indian thought tried to meet the
subordinated to the laws of life and activity of man, the charvaka objections and made the Charvaka a tough stone of
system (human man). his theories. The value of Charvaka philosophy, therefore,
2) Vegetable Man – with the mineral kingdom as the his directly in supplying fresh philosophical problems and
foundation, a higher organization of matter, the indirectly in compelling other thinkers to give up
vegetable kingdom, emerges. Vegetable life differs dogmatism, and become critical and cautious as well as in a
essentially from the life of minerals. First, plants are statement of views.
capable of reproducing themselves, bearing fruit and
multiplying. Living matter proper is something that is The best positive evidence of refined hedonism is found in
capable of multiplying and producing offspring. Therein the ethical philosophy properinded by Vatsayana in the
animate things differ from inanimate things. A plant is second chapter of Kama - Sutra. It is here that we find a
the first form of living matter in the proper sense. great hedonist himself stating and defending his own views.
Second plants are more “active and enterprising as Though Vatsayana believes in God and in life after death
compared to mineral system. In India, for instance, wild and therefore, is not a materialist in the ordinary sense, yet
plants can cover and destroy within a short period of he may be regarded as one, according to a wider sense of the
time an abandoned house and even a town. Third, the term, namely one who tries to explain ‘higher phenomena’
rhythm of the life of life of plants is different. Plants by lower ones.9
respond in a different way to changes in the seasons and
the time of day and night. Finally, it may be noted that the contribution of Charvaka
3) Animal Man – The animal, as a higher organization of epistemology is not in significant. The Criticism of inference
matter, compared to the mineral and vegetable systems, put in the mouth of Charvaka by his opponents reminds us of
could only arise in a highly developed mineral and similar criticism made in modern times against the
vegetable kingdom. It imbibes the “refined product” of soundness of deductive logic. The Charvaka view that no
both. Patanjali stressed that the distinctive feature of the inference can yield certain knowledge is the view of many
animal as a higher form of the living is its mobility. The contemporary western thinkers like the pragmatist and
ability to move (walk, crawl, run, jump, fly etc) enables logical positivist.
the animal to enter upon diverse relationships with the
surrounding world.
4) Human Man – The highest subsystem is a synthesis and

Volume 13 Issue 5, May 2024

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 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
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References
[1] Cf Reva, Khada Cavaralocane Sad Darshana
[2] Hence one of the most famous probable versions of the
origin of the name Charvaka “Chatr” four ‘Vak’ word,
that is
[3] Lok means “world” so that the ancient Indian
materialists sometimes called Lokayalikias.
Etymologically, the world Lok means “that which is
wide spread among people that which is secular.
[4] S. Radhakrishnan Vol I P/281.
[5] Maranam eva apavargah, Brishspati Sutra.
[6] Kama Sutra Chap 2
[7] V. I. Lenin “Materialism and Empiro –Criticism”
collected works Vol 14 P/153.
[8] S. Das Gupta (History of Indian Philosophy Vol I
Cambridge 1922 (PP/244 - 245).
[9] Vide James ‘Pragmatism’ P/93.

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