ROOT CAUSES OF CONFLICT

AND VIOLENCE IN AFRICA

WEEK THREE
OBJECTIVES
⚫ At the end of this session, you should understand:
⚫ History of African conflicts and other parts of the world
⚫ Causes of conflicts in Africa
⚫ Root causes of conflict in Africa
⚫ United Nations Analysis of cause of conflict
⚫ Simple reasons why nations go to war
⚫ Solutions to the problems of war and conflicts in Africa
INTRODUCTION
⚫ Every society has its own peculiar causes and nature of
conflict which differ from one society to another.
⚫ Pervasive conflict throughout much of Sub-Saharan Africa
defies easy resolution due to a unique web of factors.
⚫ Poor governance, ethnic rivalry, mismanagement of land
and natural resources, declining economic conditions, and
widespread poverty and famine form a daunting bulwark
against stability.
Cont
⚫ To look at Africa’s past is to witness horrific suffering,
oppressive governments and an endless string of missed
opportunities that, if pursued, would have improved the plight
of its peoples.
⚫ Even if by magic all of the African governments suddenly
became capable and responsive to their citizens’ needs, if the
donor community only funded projects that increased
self-reliance instead of dependence, and if the world greatly
increased their interest and concern in what was happening in
the continent, even if all of these should occur, it is still too late
to avert catastrophe
Cont
⚫ New problems such as global warming have arisen that
compound the old problems.
⚫ Developed nations, steered by the hands of skilled
government officials, will have great difficulty navigating
the tremendous changes, especially those wrought through
alteration of the climate, unfolding before them.
⚫ To expect many of the African nations, already fragile if
not broken, to also succeed without experiencing
incredible turmoil, is not realistic.
HISTORY OF AFRICAN CONFLICTS
⚫ The history of Africa as a continent is replete with
conflict.
⚫ One may even assert that the major current that runs
through Africa: from North to South, East to West and
Central is conflict and wars.
⚫ Since the 1960’s, series of civil wars had taken place in
Africa. Examples include: Sudan (1995-1990), Chad
(1965-85), Angola since 1974, Liberia (19802003),
Nigeria (1967-70), Somalia (1999-93) and Burundi,
Rwanda and Sierra Leone (1991-2001).
Cont
⚫ But apart from civil wars, Africa has also witnessed a
number of intermittent border and inter- state conflicts
notable among which are the following:
⚫ Nigeria- Cameroon dispute over Bakassi peninsular since
the 1970’s;
⚫ Algeria- Morocco conflict over the Atlas Mountains area
in October 1963;
⚫ Eritrea- Ethiopian crisis between 1962 and 1979;
Cont
⚫ Somalia-Ethiopia` dispute of 1964 to 1978 over the
Ugandan desert region;
⚫ Chad- Libya crisis of 1980- 1982;
⚫ Kenya- Somalia border war of 1963 -1967 in which
Somalia aimed at recovering its lost territories including
the Northern frontier district of Kenya.
⚫ Tanzania- Uganda crisis in 1978-79
OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD
⚫ As Ajayi (2005:143) has rightly observed, “the regularity
of conflicts in Africa has become one of the distinct
characteristics of the continent ”.
⚫ However, it is apt to note that Africa has no monopoly of
conflict.
⚫ Other regions of the world are also riddled with
considerable violence and social conflagration.
Cont
⚫ For instance, Bosnia, Serbia, Turkey and Northern Ireland
are among the trouble parts of Europe.
⚫ In Asia, one may point to Cambodia, Iraq and Burma
among others as conflict ridden.
⚫ Latin America is also enmeshed in conflicts as evinced by
countries like Peru, Guatemala, Mexico and Columbia.
CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA
⚫ Conflicts in Africa may be said to have been caused by a
multiplicity of factors such as: arbitrary borders created by
the colonial powers, heterogeneous ethnic composition of
African states, inept political leadership, corruption,
negative effect of external debt burden and poverty.
(1) Creation of Arbitrary Borders by
Colonial Powers
⚫ The colonization of Africa by European powers in the 19th
century created political units that divided ethnic groups in
some cases and combined rival groups in others.
⚫ As currently composed, boundaries of most Africa states were
arbitrarily drawn without regard to ethnic and cultural
affinities.
⚫ In some cases, European boundaries forced starkly different,
rival cultures to cohabit within the confines of a single state.
⚫ The impacts of these borders were felt to varying degrees from
one country to the other throughout Africa.
Cont
⚫ For instance, the Akan speaking peoples were split
between Ghana and cote d’ lvoire; the Ewe ethnic group
has also been split between Ghana and Togo while many
Yoruba are found in the Benin Republic.
⚫ It should be noted that since the 1950’s when Africa
nations started to gain independence, these arbitrary
borders have more often than not become source of
conflict.
(2) Heterogeneous Ethnic Composition of
Africa States and the Resultant Problem of
Ethnicity
⚫ Carment (1994:137) and the United Nations (1987) have
submitted that of the over 180 states of the world, only a small
number are ethnically homogenous.
⚫ This probably suggests that multi-ethnic states are likely to
continue to be a feature of international politics and that ethnic
conflict is not only a threat to the African continent but also a
menace to the whole international community (Ryan 1990:14;
Instituto Del Tercer, 1997:160).
⚫ However, one cannot deny the fact ethno political conflicts
have been on the increase in Africa throughout the 20th
century.
Cont
⚫ This is probably not unconnected with the factor of ethnic
diversity of most African states and the resultant problem
of ethnicity.
⚫ Eminue (2004:19) and Osaghae (1992: 214) submit that of
all the factors, multi- ethnicity is the most frequently
associated with conflict.
⚫ Truly, given the fact that ethnic cleavages are already deep
and political discrimination against minority groups is
widely practiced in Africa, ethnicity cannot but be a great
potential for separatist activities.
Cont
⚫ Ethnicity has bred the feelings of suspicion, hatred and
distrust among members of the various ethnic groups in
Africa and has no doubt re traded political integration in
Africa.
⚫ It is therefore not surprising to note that at least twice
(1967-70 civil war and 1993 -1999 friction) ethnic rivalry
has been the major cause of internal conflicts in Nigeria.
⚫ Similar stories may also be told of Liberia, Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi, Somalia, Sudan, Congo and a host of
other Africa states
(3) Inept Leadership
⚫ Africa has consistently suffered from the problem of inept
leadership which has retarded political integration and
unity in almost all African states.
⚫ Given the heterogeneous composition of most African
states, perhaps what they needed most are the virtues of
administrative tact, political tolerance and social justice.
⚫ These essential ingredients are to be provided by the
continent’s leadership.
Cont
⚫ Unfortunately however, the realities on ground in most
African nations have revealed that most African leaders
are weak, corrupt and unpatriotic.
⚫ Apart from retarding national integration and socio-
economic developments, the attitudes of these rulers have
sparked off widespread bloody violence.
⚫ Sudanese, Nigerian, Algerian and Liberian civil wars lend
credence to the fact that African leaders have failed to
forge national unity in their respective countries.
Cont
⚫ Judging from the above observation, one cannot but agree
with Adedeji (1999: 11) when he asserts that: what
African countries have lacked during most of their history,
as independent states are leaders who are unifiers, chiefs
in the true sense, who bind wounds, hold everything and
everyone together, mobilize and motivate their people,
pursue a policy of inclusion rather than exclusion and are
seen by one and all to be of the highest integrity and
beyond suspicion.
Cont
⚫ The point therefore is that African leadership must be
acceptable to all sections of the community if the process
of integration is not to be halted.
⚫ Until then, a recurrence of conflicts across Africa may
continue to be a common phenomenon
(4) Corruption
⚫ One of the major factors responsible for internal conflicts in
Africa is the devastating impact of corruption.
⚫ Corruption, manifested in the embezzlement and
misappropriation of public funds, has paralyzed development
efforts and caused debilitating immobilize in the march
towards socio-economic transformation and political
integration in Africa.
⚫ Africa’s resources have been badly managed over the years
that masses are fed up with their leaders.
⚫ This has provoked militant nationalism against Africa leaders.
⚫ The result, expectedly, is the unending conflict across Africa
states.
Cont
⚫ The Africa Union itself acknowledges the debilitating impact
of corruption on the political and socio- economic stability of
Africa states.
⚫ This perhaps explains the adoption of the “Africa Convention
on Preventing and Combating Corruption” by the 2nd ordinary
Session of the Assembly of the Union on 11 July 2003.
⚫ The convention is meant to, among other things, promote and
strengthen the development in Africa by each state party, of
mechanisms required to prevent, detect, punish and eradicate
corruption in the public and private sectors.
(5) Poverty
⚫ Africa is one of the poorest continents of the world. This
is largely due to harsh environmental conditions,
corruption and huge foreign debt that exacerbate the
conditions of poverty
⚫ For instance, desertification has contributed to famines in
a number of African states such as Ethiopia and Mali.
⚫ As a result, the number of people living in extreme
poverty in sub- Saharan Africa grew from 217 million in
1987 to more than 300 million in 1998
Cont
⚫ If therefore the saying is true that a hungry man is an
angry man, then conflicts may for long be a part of Africa
life owing to this situation of absolute poverty prevalent
across the continent
Other Causes of Conflict
⚫ Individual Difference - In society, men are not alike in
their nature, attitudes, ideal, interest and aspirations. Due
to this difference, they fail to accommodate themselves
which may lead to conflict among them.
⚫ Cultural Difference - Culture is the way of life of a group.
It differs from society to society. The culture of one group
differs from the culture of the other group. These cultural
differences among the group, sometimes cause tension and
lead to conflict.
cont
⚫ Clashes of Interests - The clash of interests of different
people makes conflict inevitable. The interests of the
workers clash with those of employers lead to conflict
among them.
⚫ Social Change - Conflict also arises due to the difference
between rates of social change. The change in the moral
norms of a society and man's hopes, aspirations and
demands leads to conflict The conflict between the old and
new generations is owing to social changes. Conflict is an
expression of social disequilibrium.
cont
⚫ Organisation of Society - The way a society is organised
can create both the root causes of conflict and the
conditions in which it's likely to occur.
⚫ Any society which is organised so that some people are
treated unequally and unjustly is likely to erupt into
conflict, especially if its leaders don't represent all the
members of that society. If an unequal and unjust society
is reformed, then conflicts will be rare.
cont
⚫ Basic Needs - Human beings have basic needs. Everyone
needs to be recognised as an individual with a personal
identity; everyone needs to be able to feel safe. If these needs
aren't met, people protest, and protesting can lead to rebellion
and violence.
⚫ Many people find their identity and security in their cultural
group and its particular point of view - so clashes between
different cultural groups also lead to disputes that can easily
turn violent. If people learn to understand that differing
cultures are not inevitably a threat to each other, they will also
learn how to manage their differences co-operatively and
peacefully.
cont
⚫ Cultural Difficulties - One aspect of culture is particularly
important: it can create language and behaviour that excludes
people, creating 'us/them', 'insider/outsider' situations and using
language of discrimination, intolerance and hate. If people
create a society that doesn't see 'difference' and 'diversity' as
problems but as valuable for social growth, many causes of
conflict disappear.
⚫ Competition - Conflicts arise when people are competing for
the same resources (such as territory, jobs and income,
housing) when they aren't fairly distributed or when there aren't
enough to go round.
cont
⚫ Unhappiness - Conflicts arise when the people are
unhappy with how they are governed. The most common
conflicts occur when a particular group wants to be
independent from a central government, or when their
viewpoint isn't represented in the government, or when the
government oppresses them and doesn't respect or meet
their basic needs.
⚫ Clash of beliefs - Conflicts arise when people's beliefs
clash. Religious and political views are particularly
sensitive, because people often depend on these for a
sense of identity and belonging.
ROOT CAUSES OF CONFLICT IN
AFRICA
In Africa today, there are many causes of conflict but this
are some of the root causes of violent conflict.
These include but not limited to the following:
⚫ Indigene and Settlers’ Phenomena
⚫ Political disputes
⚫ Economic Inequalities
⚫ Social Dispute
⚫ Nationalist movements and agitations
Cont
⚫ Farmers versus Pastoralists Conflict
⚫ Minorities versus Majorities Domination
⚫ Religious Domination
⚫ Power Struggle
Indigene and settlers’ phenomena
⚫ The manifestation of indigenes versus settler’s crisis in
recent times is the question of land ownership and the
right of occupancy generated by unprecedented migration
of people from one place to the other due to ‘push’ and
‘pull’ factors.
⚫ The push factor is as a result of socioeconomic situations
that compel people to move, such as war, famine, diseases
and other disasters.
⚫ While the pull factors are those related to economic
opportunities such as employment, trade etc.
Political disputes/poor governance
⚫ The proliferation of political associations provided an
opportunity for promoting and protecting parochial
interest rather than the purpose to which these associations
were established
⚫ African nations run the range from having little or no
government, as in Somalia, to true democracies, as in
South Africa.
Cont
⚫ In between these two extremes are a variety of
governments, often dictatorships masquerading as
democracies, and often incredibly corrupt and inefficient.
⚫ Unable to govern effectively, and lacking transparency so
that corruption and inefficiency can be weeded out, these
nations frequently provide the perfect culture for
extremism or outright anarchy to take root.
Cont
⚫ It was not supposed to be that way.
⚫ Following independence from colonial rule these nations
burst upon the scene with people anxious to fulfill their
dream of choosing their own destinies.
⚫ Unfortunately, many of these people never had a chance to
fulfill that dream, as many African governments became
long-term, one-man rule, frequently staying in power
through corruption, intimidation, or both.
Some examples include:
⚫ • Eritrea – Isaias Afewerki has been President since
independence in 1993.
⚫ Many members of parliament and senior ruling party
members have been imprisoned incommunicado since
2001.
⚫ • Libya – Muammar al Gaddafi has been the de facto leader
for more than four decades 1969 to 2011
⚫ Freedom House, a Washington DC non-profit-making
organization that assesses political freedom, gave Libya a
rating of “not free”, its worst possible rating.
Cont
⚫ • Swaziland – Ruled oppressively by King Mswati since
1986.
⚫ He lives lavishly, spending huge sums on himself and his
13 wives.
⚫ • Ethiopia –Meles Zenawi has been PrimeMinister since
1995.
⚫ Elections have been controversial.
⚫ Opposition candidates have been arrested, with some
remaining in jail.
Cont
⚫ • Angola – Jose Eduardo Dos Santos has been President since
1979.
⚫ He came to power under one party rule.Next elections have
been repeatedly pushed back.
⚫ • Sudan – President Omar al-Bashir has controlled the
authoritarian government since a military coup in 1989 before
he was smoked out in 2021
⚫ • Equatorial Guinea – President Obiang has been in power
since a 1979 coup.
⚫ His regime is noted for its corruption, oppression and
anti-democratic behavior.
Below is a list of African countries
currently under military rule
⚫ Burkina Faso (since January 2022) ...
⚫ Chad (since April 2021) ...
⚫ Guinea (since September 2021) ...
⚫ Mali (since August 2020) ...
⚫ Niger (since July 2023) ...
⚫ Sudan (since October 2021) ...
⚫ Gabon (announced August 2023)
Economic inequalities
⚫ Inequality and conflict create a vicious cycle that tends to
perpetuate itself and further propagates
underdevelopment.
⚫ Risk of conflict is higher in poor and unequal countries
than in rich and less unequal ones, as a wide gap between
a group’s expected and actual economic well-being can
promote conflict.
⚫ Societies characterised by high levels of poverty,
inequality and unemployment serve as breeding grounds
for rebels and radicalised groups.
Cont
⚫ And yet, poverty and inequality are costs of pronounced
conflicts and instabilities
⚫ Economic inequality is fueling conflicts in Africa every
now and then
Nationalist movements and
agitations
⚫ Most states as presently constituted in Africa are created
through colonial diktat.
⚫ What started as trade in slaves, when many young
Africans were either forcefully carted away or sold into
slavery, gradually developed into a
‘civilising/modernising mission’, the need to save the
‘dark continent’ from ‘barbarism’ and cause it to
‘modernise’ through Christian evangelism, eventually
crystallised into forceful annexation and political
domination of African territory and its inhabitants by
Europeans through colonial rule
Cont
⚫ But, prior to colonialism, Africans had organized themselves
into political communities (Kingdoms/Empire States) and had
well-developed politico-administrative institutions.
⚫ In fact, these political communities put up organised resistance
against colonialism.
⚫ What could be gleaned from the foregoing is that contrary to
the dominant tendency in Western scholarship to suggest that
nationalism developed in Africa with colonialism, African
nationalism actually predated colonialism as it has always been
there from time immemorial
Cont
⚫ In fact, it was Africans’ sense of shared historical heritage and
identity that informed their resistance against European
intruders who wanted to undermine their socio-cultural and
political heritage.
⚫ To be sure, there were widespread resistances against colonial
rule, which include the ‘Abd al-Qadir led resistance against the
French in Algeria, the Asante King (Prempeh I) led revolt
against British colonialists in Ghana, the Maji Maji revolt in
Tanganyika, the Ndebele rebellions in Rhodasia, the Ijebu
Kingdom and the Opobo resistances in Nigeria, the Zulu
resistance in South Africa
 Farmers versus Pastoralists
⚫ Conflict between farmers and pastoralists is one of the
root causes of conflict in Nigeria, predominantly in the
north eastern region of the country where there is large
concentration of cattle and herdsmen.
⚫ According to Hagher, (2003) the nomads constantly
traverse the nation in search of pasture for their cattle and
are willing to sacrifice their own lives in defence of their
herds.
Cont
⚫ So too are the farmer’s attitude to protecting their crops.
⚫ The increasing violent overflow of brutal wars between
nomads and farmers according to him can be attributed to
state collapse, injustice etc.
Minorities versus Majorities
Domination
⚫ Some ethnic groups feel dominated and marginalised by
other ethnic groups.
⚫ Domination in this context, according to Okafor, et-al
(1997) refers to the superior and advantageous position
occupied by some ethnic groups to the detriment of other
ethnic groups who are deprived of or discriminated against
in the distribution of national wealth, offices, resources,
opportunities and sharing of political power.
Cont
⚫ Some ethnic groups have long lamented their relegated
position in the affairs of Nigeria.
⚫ These ethnic minorities feel cheated, neglected and
marginalised by the government in collusion with the
larger ethnic groups
Religious Domination
⚫ Some politicians use religion to generate conflict for their
own selfish gains.
⚫ Over the years there has been an incessant clash between
two most dominant religions of Islam and Christianity.
⚫ Where Muslims are dominant Christians suffer and vice
versa.
⚫ This can be attributed to religious intolerance among both
religions.
⚫ The revival of the traditionalists is another issue
Power Struggle
⚫ The proliferation of political associations provided an
opportunity for promoting and protecting parochial
interest rather than the purpose to which these associations
were established
Simple Reasons Why People Fight
⚫ Survival
⚫ Hate
⚫ Anger
⚫ Greed
⚫ Need
⚫ Miscalculation
⚫ Power
⚫ Insecurity
Simple Reasons Why Nations Go
to War
⚫ When war will be beneficial to society (a means to
achieve an end).
⚫ Errors of appreciation of political, economic, and social
situation of its own society and of the adversary Accidents
in which a critical situation gets out of hand.
⚫ Resource Control (e.g. fight over resources).
United Nations Analysis of Cause
of Conflict
⚫ Poverty - Research show that 80% of today’s war are
caused by poverty: Poorer countries are found to be three
times at greater risk of war than richer countries.
⚫ Inequality - unquel access to political power.
⚫ Rise in ethnic identities.
⚫ Oil - Gulf War; Iraqi War are oil wars.Wars are often
fought over specific areas; areas that are usually rich in
resources. Once the land is conquered, resources such as
oil, diamonds and timber can be looted and sold for hard
currency
cont
⚫ Freedom - People fight to free themselves. All men and
women are created equal.
⚫ They are empowered by their Creator with certain
unalienable rights: Right to Life; Right to Liberty; Right
to Happiness.
⚫ To secure these rights, Governments are instituted among
men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the
governed.
Solution to the Problem of Wars
and Conflicts in Africa
⚫ As a way out of the predicament of wars and conflicts that
have bedeviled Africa, it is apt to offer some valuable
suggestions based on a thorough analysis of the causes of
the problem.
⚫ In this wise, two major broad solutions may be
experimented with to bail Africa out of recurrent conflicts
and wars.
⚫ These are committed and sincere leadership and
eradication of poverty.
(a) Committed and Sincere
Leadership
⚫ African states need committed and sincere leaders that
will lead by example and who act as good, responsible and
responsive fathers to all the component sections and
peoples in their countries so as to promote peace and
harmony within the confines of their respective countries.
⚫ This can be done in a number of ways:
(i) Even distribution of resources
⚫ African leaders must ensure an even distribution of
resources among the various geo-political zones in their
countries.
⚫ Marginalization of one unit/ group should not be allowed
in order to win the support and cooperation of all and
sundry and to avoid any feeling of alienation.
(ii) Promotion of rule of law
⚫ African leaders should also endeavour to promote the rule of
law.
⚫ This involves equal access to justice by all citizens irrespective
of their status, respect for court decisions by the government
and influential, and conduct of free and fair periodic elections
among others.
⚫ When and where leaders promote the rule of law as indicated
above, there are a guarantee of peaceful coexistence among
people and a peaceful transition of power from one government
to the other.
⚫ Succession dispute related conflicts that are very rampant in
Africa may thus be easily eliminated
(iii) Protection of Fundamental
Human rights
⚫ African leaders should also promote, protect and guarantee the
fundamental human rights of their citizens.
⚫ In particular, the fundamental rights of freedom of speech,
association and religion should be guaranteed.
⚫ People should be free to assess and criticize the performance of
government without fear of persecution.
⚫ Opposition must be tolerated while the fourth realm of
government, the press, must not be censured.
⚫ In this wise governments would always be kept on her toes to
provide qualitative and sincere leadership in their countries
(b) Eradication of Poverty
⚫ Without much controversy, one may boldly declare that
poverty is the root of all evils in Africa.
⚫ A poor man, who has been economically humiliated and
financially traumatized may not be said to be in his right
senses.
⚫ Hence, it may be apt to observe that a hungry man is a
mad man.
⚫ He can steal, kill, maim and destroy.
Cont
⚫ Poverty can demean a man and affect his psychology
negatively.
⚫ Hence a major policy instrument for peace and stability in
Africa that is riddled with wars and conflicts is the
eradication or at worst, a reduction of the monster of
poverty.
⚫ This can be achieved in a number of ways as suggested
below:
(i) Equal access to qualitative
education
⚫ Governments in Africa should give their citizens equal
access to qualitative education.
⚫ The importance of education to the socio- economic
development of a nation has been well articulated in the
Millennium Development Goal.
⚫ Education, no doubt, is a lever to human and societal
development.
Cont
⚫ Apart from imparting skill and knowledge in the citizens,
it will also eliminate ignorance.
⚫ Education will also empower citizens for employment in
the future.
⚫ It makes labour more mobile across the globe.
Opportunities for survival are very much available to the
educated people.
(ii)Provision of gainful employment
for the youths
⚫ Governments in Africa should also strive to provide
gainful employment for all their citizens especially the
youths.
⚫ Industries and factories should be established to absorb the
teeming graduates of higher institutions of learning in
African countries.
⚫ Government should also encourage farming through
mechanized agriculture.
Cont
⚫ Modern farm implements and technology should be
provided for farmers at cheap prices.
⚫ Apart from eradicating the problem of hunger, this will no
doubt equally enhance the economic empowerment of
youths and eradicate idleness.
(iii) Adequate remuneration of civil
servants
⚫ Government workers should be adequately remunerated
white promotion should also be based on competence and
performance.
⚫ Their salaries should be enough to sustain their families.
⚫ This will go a long way at reducing the incidence of
misappropriation and embezzlement of public fund that
have always starved African governments the much
needed fund for development.
Conclusion
⚫ Since independence in the late 20th century, African
countries have been betting with the problem of civil wars
and inter- state conflicts.
⚫ This has taken its toll on Africa’s development in a
number of ways especially in death of her illustrious sons
and daughters and alienation of her peoples which in turn
has been hindering the process of integration and cohesion
in Africa.
⚫ Thugery, looting and arson have become part and parcel
of Africa’s political culture.
Cont
⚫ This should not be allowed to continue if Africa is to witness
sporadic growth and development and compete favourably
with other continents of the world.
⚫ All hands must therefore he on deck to halt this negative
development and chart a new course for peace in Africa.
⚫ This will not only enhance adequate security of life and
property in Africa, it will also attract foreign investors to
Africa for the adequate exploration of her numerous natural
resources for growth and development.