### Chemistry Notes

#### 1. **Introduction to Chemistry**

- Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, composition, and the changes
it undergoes.
- Branches of Chemistry:
- **Physical Chemistry**: Study of matter's physical properties and energy
changes
- **Organic Chemistry**: Study of carbon-based compounds
- **Inorganic Chemistry**: Study of compounds without carbon
- **Analytical Chemistry**: Identifying substances and their quantities
- **Biochemistry**: Chemistry of biological systems

#### 2. **States of Matter**

- **Solid**: Fixed shape and volume
- **Liquid**: Fixed volume, takes the shape of the container
- **Gas**: No fixed shape or volume
- **Plasma**: Ionized gas with free electrons
- Changes of State:
- Melting, Freezing, Boiling, Condensation, Sublimation

#### 3. **Atomic Structure**

- **Subatomic Particles**:
- Proton (\(+\)), Neutron (neutral), Electron (\(-\))
- **Atomic Models**:
- Dalton’s Model: Indivisible particles
- Thomson’s Model: Plum pudding model
- Rutherford’s Model: Nucleus at the center
- Bohr’s Model: Electrons in discrete orbits
- Quantum Mechanical Model: Orbitals (s, p, d, f)
- Atomic Number (\(Z\)): Number of protons
- Mass Number (\(A\)): Number of protons + neutrons
- Isotopes: Atoms with same \(Z\), different \(A\)

#### 4. **Periodic Table**

- **Periodic Law**: Properties of elements repeat periodically when arranged by
atomic number.
- Groups (vertical columns): Similar chemical properties
- Periods (horizontal rows): Gradual change in properties
- Classification:
- Metals, Non-metals, Metalloids
- Alkali metals, Halogens, Noble gases
- Trends:
- Atomic size, Ionization energy, Electronegativity, Metallic character

#### 5. **Chemical Bonding**

- **Ionic Bond**: Transfer of electrons (e.g., NaCl)
- **Covalent Bond**: Sharing of electrons (e.g., \(H_2O\))
- **Metallic Bond**: Delocalized electrons in metals
- **Intermolecular Forces**:
- Hydrogen bonding
- Van der Waals forces
- **VSEPR Theory**: Shapes of molecules (linear, tetrahedral, etc.)

#### 6. **Chemical Reactions**

- Types of Reactions:
- **Combination**: \(A + B \to AB\)
- **Decomposition**: \(AB \to A + B\)
- **Single Displacement**: \(A + BC \to AC + B\)
 - **Double Displacement**: \(AB + CD \to AD + CB\)
- **Redox Reactions**: Transfer of electrons
- Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass of reactants = Mass of products
- Balancing Chemical Equations

#### 7. **Stoichiometry**
- **Mole Concept**:
- 1 mole = \(6.022 \times 10^{23}\) particles (Avogadro's number)
- Molar mass = Mass of one mole of a substance
- Calculations:
- Mass-Mass, Mass-Volume relationships in reactions

#### 8. **Solutions**
- Types: Solid in liquid, Gas in liquid, Liquid in liquid
- **Concentration**:
- Molarity (\(M\)): Moles of solute per liter of solution
- Molality (\(m\)): Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
- Normality (\(N\)): Equivalent of solute per liter of solution
- Solubility Factors: Temperature, pressure, nature of solvent

#### 9. **Acids, Bases, and Salts**

- Definitions:
- Arrhenius: Acids release \(H^+\), Bases release \(OH^-\)
- Bronsted-Lowry: Acids donate protons, Bases accept protons
- Lewis: Acids accept electron pairs, Bases donate electron pairs
- pH Scale: Measure of acidity/basicity (\(pH = -\log[H^+]\))
- Neutralization: Acid + Base → Salt + Water

#### 10. **Thermochemistry**

- **Energy Changes in Reactions**:
- Exothermic: Releases heat (\(\Delta H < 0\))
- Endothermic: Absorbs heat (\(\Delta H > 0\))
- **Enthalpy (\(H\))**: Heat content of a system
- **Entropy (\(S\))**: Measure of disorder
- Gibbs Free Energy (\(\Delta G = \Delta H - T\Delta S\)):
- Determines spontaneity of a reaction

#### 11. **Chemical Kinetics**

- **Rate of Reaction**: Change in concentration per unit time
- Factors Affecting Rate:
- Temperature, Concentration, Surface area, Catalyst
- Rate Laws: \(Rate = k[A]^m[B]^n\)
- Activation Energy: Minimum energy needed for a reaction

#### 12. **Equilibrium**

- **Dynamic Equilibrium**: Rate of forward reaction = Rate of reverse reaction
- Le Chatelier’s Principle: System adjusts to minimize stress
- Equilibrium Constant (\(K\)):
- \(K_c\) (concentration), \(K_p\) (pressure)

#### 13. **Electrochemistry**

- **Electrochemical Cells**:
- Galvanic Cell: Spontaneous reactions, generates electricity
- Electrolytic Cell: Non-spontaneous, requires electricity
- Standard Electrode Potential (\(E^\circ\))
- Applications: Batteries, corrosion, electroplating

#### 14. **Organic Chemistry**

- **Hydrocarbons**:
 - Alkanes (\(C_nH_{2n+2}\)), Alkenes (\(C_nH_{2n}\)), Alkynes (\(C_nH_{2n-
2}\))
- Functional Groups: Alcohols, Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids
- Reactions:
- Substitution, Addition, Elimination
- Polymers: Synthetic (e.g., plastics) and natural (e.g., proteins)

#### 15. **Environmental Chemistry**

- Pollution: Air, water, soil
- Green Chemistry: Sustainable and eco-friendly chemical practices
- Ozone Depletion, Acid Rain, Climate Change

Let me know if you’d like a detailed explanation or examples for any of these
topics!