1.

Introduction

Cement is a finely ground, non-metallic, inorganic powder when mixed with water forms a
paste that sets and hardens. This hydraulic hardening is primarily due to the formation of
calcium silicate hydrates as a result of the reaction between mixing water and the
constituents of the cement.

Cement raw materials are mostly obtained from open quarries such as: Calcite (CaCO3)
crystals, Silica containing materials and Clays.

Clinker production is the most energy-intensive stage in cement production, accounting

for over 90% of total industry energy use. Clinker is produced by pyro-processing in kilns.
These kiln systems evaporate the free water in the meal, calcite the carbonate
constituents (calcination), and form Portland cement minerals (clinkerization). The ground
raw material, fed into the top of the kiln, moves down the tube toward the flame. In the
sintering (or clinkering zone), the combustion gas reaches a temperature of 1800-2000°C.

Cement is produced by grinding clinker together with some admixtures: gypsum, slag,
pozzolan, limestone, among others. The most important mineral phases come from
clinker.

 C3S
 C3A
 C4AF
 Gypsum
 C2S
 Free lime

The clinker burning process

What is the goal of clinker burning?

The production of GOOD QUALITY cement.

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What is cement quality?

Cement quality is defined in terms of characteristics & properties such as:

 Chemical composition (Oxides content limits)

 Physical properties (Strength, Workability, Setting behavior etc) in Standard
Norms (ASTM, ISO) and is measured used standard methods.

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Factors influencing cement quality

 Chemical & mineralogical composition of raw mix

 Chemical & mineralogical composition of clinker
 Burning process
 Chemical composition of fuels
 Circulation phenomena
 Mechanical handling of clinker (grinding)

2. Quality control concepts

Quality control normally complements the process control, with the aim being to
monitor the product quality at the different production stages, so that the required
quality level is finally achieved.

FACTS TARGET

Raw materials Cost optimization Product

situation

Quality

Process Control
Material

Processing

Kiln Feed

Clinker

Cement

Material Flow

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 A detailed control plan for quality control of each raw material, intermediate &
final product is setup by a thorough analysis of the following questionnaire.

 What should be examined?

 What information is required for the control?
 How often must the test be performed?
 How accurate must the result of the testing be?

2.1 Sampling and Analysis In Cement Industry

What is sampling?

Sampling is the process to collect a representative & sufficient quantity of

material (sample) to be analysed.

Generally there are two types of samples

1. Spot sample: samples that is collected at a certain moment or the portion

taken from the collected material([Link]-homogenized).

2. Representative sample: samples that represent the full quantity or a full

period of time.

In both cases the sample can be collected manually or automatically, but

representative sample is our aim.

Are auto samples always representative? The collection of the sample must
be continuous to ensure representative auto sampling.

Once the representative sample is guaranteed, accurate & precise analysis must
also be ensured before necessary corrective actions.i.e it is a sequence:
Material, sample, Analysis & [Link] are three possibilities:

1. Wrong sample + correct analysis = Wrong action

2. Correct sample + Wrong analysis = Wrong action

3. Correct sample + Correct analysis = Right action

4
5
 Sampling Present lab or
[Link] Station Material Sampling point frequency Test performed
method section on duty
Samplers
Limestone from After each Blast Moisture (H2O) CaCO3
Manual When required Process control lab
quarry hole Complete analysis
analytical lab
Hourly Moisture (H2O)
From limestone Samplers
Crushed limestone Manual Hourly CaCO3
weigh belt feeder process control lab
Every new pile complete analysis
Quarry pile or Moisture(H2O) Samplers
Clay from quarry Manual When required
batch complete analysis analytical lab
Twice in a month Moisture(H2O) Samplers
Crushed clay From clay W.B.F Manual
1st and 3rd week complete analysis analytical lab
Sandstone from Quarry pile or Moisture(H2O) Samplers
Raw- Manual When required
1 quarry batch complete analysis analytical lab
materials
From sand stone Once a month 2nd Moisture(H2O) Samplers
Crushed sand stone Manual
W.B.F week complete analysis analytical lab
Quarry pile or Moisture (H2O) Samplers
Gypsum from quarry Manual When required
batch SO3 & complete analysis analytical lab
From pumice Once in month 4th Moisture (H2O) SO3 Samplers
Crushed gypsum Manual
W.B.F week complete analysis analytical lab
Quarry pile or Moisture(H2O) Samplers
Pumice form quarry Manual When required
batch complete analysis analytical lab
From pumice Once in month 4th Moisture(H2O) Samplers
Crushed pumice Manual
W.B.F week complete analysis analytical lab
Hourly every 30 Sieve Residue 90µm Samplers
Raw meal Raw mix (raw meal) Raw meal air slide Manual/Auto
min CaCO3 process control lab
2 Mixing silo Silo-sample Air slide or lifters Manual/Auto For every silo CaCO3 Process control lab
CaCO3
Kiln Kiln feed (kiln Meal) Air slide Manual/Auto Every 2hr Process control lab
Sieve residue 90µm
Precalciner Hot meal From precalciner Manual When required LOI analytical lab
Every 2hr Liter weight Samplers
3 Clinker Clinker Kiln outlet Manual Collective free CaO Process control lab
Sample of 24 hr complete analysis SO3, IR analytical lab
4 Cement mill Cement Cement air slide Auto Every 2hr Sieve residue 63 µm Samplers
Every 4hr So3 process control
Every 2hr pumice content for ppc process control
Every 2hr process control

6
 Physical test Samplers
Every day daily
sieve residue 63µm Physical lab
Average
SO3, IR, LOI, Analytical lab

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2.2 Testing Methods/techniques in cement industry

1. Chemical composition (Complete analysis ): Complexometric titration and/or X-

ray Fluorescence
2. CaCO3 : Carbonate titration (back titration) & Prompt gamma neutron
activation technology (PGNAA)
3. Fineness : Sieving
4. SO3: Gravimetric, X-ray Fluorescence & LECO Sulpure analyzer
5. Alkalies (K2O & Na2O): Flame photometer, atomic absorption spectroscopy
(AAS) & X-ray Fluorescence
6. Chlorine: Potentiometeric titration, X-ray Fluorescence
7. Loss on ignition(LOI): Ignition the sample in Laboratory muffle furnace @
10000C
8. Free lime(uncombined CaO) :Titration(ethylene glycol method),conductometric
(Automatic free lime analyzers,X-ray diffraction

3. The cement manufacturing process’s variables and factors

There are number of variables and factors which control the overall performance of
the cement manufacturing process such as:

3.1 Raw material preparation

A) Purpose

Control of the materials composition prior to excavation enables selective quarrying

to achieve.

 Correct composition of (integrated) stock piles

 Medium to long term uniformity of stock pile composition
 Optimum utilization of materials and equipment
B) Process’s variables and factors
Cement industry is a continuous process manufacturing which is characterised by
intensive materials consumption. Therefore, any little improvement or adjustment in
the properties of the raw materials will enhance the process performance and the
plant overall. Different properties of raw materials have vital impacts on the cement
production line’s performance:

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  Moisture

The energy amount and cycle-time that needed for drying and processing the raw
materials are proportional to the moisture contents. For example more energy is
needed to produce enough hot air in order to dry the raw materials with high
moisture. Therefore the moisture content affects and controls the productivity and
performance of the raw milling process,

 Material compositions

Limestone (Calcium Carbonate) and Clay are the main raw materials which are used
to produce the cement. Each raw material has a variety of chemical and
mineralogical compositions. The product quality and processing times are extremely
variable and depends on the compositions. The main purpose of the raw materials
quality control in order to accelerate the sintering reactions and decrease the
needed energy to burn the raw meal. The material quality control process can be
achieved by adding corrective materials such as: Corrective limestone (pure lime
stone) and Sand stone.

Average Chemical Analysis Of Raw Materials (MCE)

Main ingredients Correctives Additives

Chemical
Compositio
Limeston Pozzolana(Pumice
n LSOB Clay Sand Gypsum
e )

SiO2 % 8 - 10 38.5 - 40 83 - 86 <5 0.2-15 >64

Al2O3 % 1.9 - 2.2 23 - 24.5 5-8 <1.5 1-4.3 12-17

Fe2O3 % 0.80- 1.0 19 - 20.5 1 - 2.5 <0.8 0.5-1.5 2.3-5.5

CaO % 47 - 48 1- 2 1-2 >50 28-34 1.5-2.2

MgO % 0.4 - 0.8 0.7 - 1.5 0.4- 0.6 <0.8 0.6-3 0.3-1.2

SO3 <0.3 <0.5 <0.5 <0.3 28-43 <0.3

Na2O < 0.3 < 0.8 < 0.3 < 0.3 < 0.3 0.5 - 4

K2O < 0.3 <1.5 <0.5 < 0.3 < 0.3 0.5 - 4

Chlorine <0.012 <0.015 <0.015 <0.015 <0.015 <0.015

Ignition loss % 38 - 39 11.5 - 12 2 - 3.5 >40 12.6-24.5 4-7

CaCO3 84 - 86 89.5-94.2

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Moisture % <5.0 <22 <9 <2.9 6-11

3.2 Preblending
[Link]
Blending of raw components on (integrated) preblending stock piles to a given
target composition.

B) Process’s variables and factors

Process of mixing the raw materials is required to obtain specific physical and
chemical properties. Blending and homogenization process defined as: a creating of
required specific physical and chemical properties of raw materials by mixing and
integrating certain quantities of those materials.

Number of problems can occur and arise within the cement production line as a
result of materials compositions variations. For example

i. Corrosion problems: corrosion within this process has classified into two
groups. First, cold corrosion which can be occurred because of oxidation state. The
cold corrosion is resulted from the reaction of the equipment surface with water and
oxygen. Secondly, chemical corrosion which can be occurred as a result of the
chemical reaction between the corrosive gases and equipments. The raw materials
and fuel are counted as the major sources of the corrosive gases such as: sulphur
oxides (SOx), calcium chloride (CaCl2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx).Corrosion
situation affects the performance of raw milling system by increasing the
breakdown rates and reducing the equipment availability and reliability.

ii. Build-up formation of materials and rings forming: Sulphur, Chlorine, and
alkali components may accumulate at the cold zone of the kiln obstructing the raw
meal flow leading to unstable operation. Number of factors can control and keep
values of these volatile components at minimum levels such as: chemical properties
of raw meal and fuels, Oxygen rates, and flame characteristics.

C) Raw material homogenization

Homogenization of raw materials is carried out in pre-blending stores. With proper

layout, all storages for raw materials can be operated as blending storages with
varying efficiency. Raw materials typically are stored in piles representing three to
seven days production, and raw meal is stored in silos that hold three to four days
production. There are various layouts of raw material storages for pre-blending.

There are a number of ways to stack limestone. Most common are the chevron or
windrow methods, in which the materials are stacked in many layers in the
longitudinal direction of the raw material pile (e.g. Line 1 & 2). The material is

10
reclaimed from the entire cross section of the pile and the number of reclaimed
layers in the cross section is the important parameter for the blending efficiency.

The composition of the individual layers in the reclaimed cross section is

determined by the variation of the limestone in the quarry. By reclaiming a pile
cross-section with N layers, the composition represents an average of the N layers.
The ratio between the standard deviation of the composition of the material going
to the raw material pile and that of the reclaimed material can be shown to be -N.
This factor is the efficiency of the blending process. In principle, the greater the
number of stacked layers, the better the homogenization will be. An alternative is
the continuous stacking in a circular pile; here the number of reclaimed layers is
smaller (E.g. Line 3)

3.3 RAW MEAL

3.3.1 Raw meal control objectives

The raw meal control serves the following objectives:

 Blending of components to obtain the target composition of raw meal and

clinker
 Achievement of target meal fineness to obtain appropriate clinker
burnability
 Achievement of a sufficient uniformity which, together with the
homogenization in the subsequent silo, results in a high kiln feed
uniformity.
3.3.2 Process’s variables and factors Material
 Material grind-ability
Material’s grind-ability can be classified into three main categories such as: easy
to grind, normal to grind, and hard to grind. Materials with easy grind-ability
need short residual time in the mill. On the other hand longer residual time is
needed for hard grind-ability materials.

The consumption of electric energy and process time are proportional to the
material hardness. Material grind-ability affects and governs the equipment
reliability and performance. Some units of raw milling and finish grinding
systems are exposed to variety levels of wear. For example components such
rollers, mill table, mill wall lining bricks, and grinding media can be exposed to
high rate of wear as a result of direct contact with rigid materials. Variation in
clinker grind-ability may be resulted from change in clinker properties due to
fault in cooling process or long storage times. The materials grind-ability factor
is expressed in term of specific electric power (KWh) that consumed for grinding
one ton of final product.

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  Product fineness
The product fineness has impact on the product quality, processing time,
separator speed, and regrinding rates. High Blaine number needs the separator
to run at high speed.

 Particles size of the materials

Longer processing time is needed for grinding large particles while small sizes
are ground easily in short time. Grinding and blending processes of large
particles consume more energy and longer processing times. Therefore the large
size of raw materials should be crushed and pre-grinded into the standard sizes.

A) Process interactions

1. Mill % ball charging

The grinding mechanism with in ball milling system is based on the collision
between the raw mix /clinker nodules and balls. Initially; there is proportional
relationship between the ball charging percentage and the raw mix /clinker
quantity can be fed into the mill. There are number of considerations such as the
maximum design mill loading, and an additional electric energy which is needed to
grind extra quantities of clinker. On one hand, reduction in mill loading is combined
with reduction of consumed electric power. Nevertheless under loading has
negative impact on specific power consumption and it has not be less than 25% of
the mill volume. Therefore; it has been stressed that the mill should be charged
with balls up to 35% by volume.

2. Mill speed

The mill should rotate at maximum speed for achieving high breakage rate within
low energy consumption rate and minimum processing time. It has been shown that
the maximum mill speed is governed by its critical speed and it should operate
within the optimum rotational speed, which occurs at range 70-85% of the mill
critical speed. The critical speed is the speed when the balls stuck to the wall and
not fall back due to high centrifugal force resulting in dramatic reduction of grinding
efficiency. There is an opposite proportional relationship between mill diameter and
its rotational speed. For example as the mill diameter increases as it runs in low
speed.

4. Adjustment of feed proportion to the mill

 Off-line: Manual, based on mix calculation (E.g. Old plants i.e. Line 1& 2).

12
 On–line: Automatic, based on blending (proportioning) program (E.g. New
line i.e. Line 3).

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5. Materials flow rates

 High rate of feed meal has dramatic reduction in mixing speed of raw
materials& decrease the efficiency of heat transfer process between hot
gases and solids. The reduction of mixing speed and heat transfer efficiency
will result in clinker quality and energy consumed. The flow rate of feed meal
should be optimised in order to enhance the kiln performance. The optimum
filling range is between 12%-17% of kiln capacity. Any value exceeds 13%
can impede the heat transferring process between raw meal and hot gases.
 The ball mill must neither under-filled nor overfilled with raw mix/clinker. On
one hand, at low filling situation the mill wall is exposed to balls tumbling.
The breakdown rate increases because of the direct collision between the
wall and balls. The direct collision between the balls will result in wear of mill
lining and the balls themselves; furthermore low breakage rate situation
consumes more energy for low productivity. On the other hand the overfilling
situation requires an additional energy and process time. The overfilling
reduces the grinding efficiency, because of dampened contact between balls
and clinker nodules. Consequently; the optimal clinker filling level has to fill
all voids sufficiently covering the grinding media (balls); however raw
mix/clinker filling level should not exceed 25% of the total ball mill volume.

6. Materials bed thickness

The raw milling system should operated at its maximum capacity for
minimising the production costs. The theory of grinding process at VRM is
based on pulverising the raw materials between the rotating rollers and table.
Therefore, regular and uninterrupted feed rate of sufficient bed depth must
be fed into the mill avoiding any threats of grinding process performance.

An insufficient bed thickness of raw materials increases the production costs

and results in high rollers wear rate, which caused by direct contact between
rollers and the table. On the other hand excessive bed depth minimises the
compression force between layers and resulting in production costs.

7. Air flow rates

The air flow rate has essential impact on the milling process and separator
efficiencies. Excessive flow rate of air increases the recirculation rate of
coarse particles resulting in reduction of grinding efficiency, and rising wear
rates of balls and separator.

In order to improve the milling process performance the air flow rate should
be kept in minimum values. They should be minimised to the necessary
levels for drying the raw materials and sweeping up fine particles. In order to
minimise the electric energy; the air flow rate should be limited to the
necessary amount for lifting the grinded materials to the separator. The
minimum values are vital factor for reducing the separator wear rate and

14
 consumed power by mill fan. On the other hand it has been proven that the
productivity of grinding process is proportional to the air flow rate.

The mill table of raw milling system could be exposed to thermal stress as a
result of passing hot stream of kiln exhausted gases. These gases are used to
dry the raw materials and reduce the moisture level. Moreover, excessive
flow rate will consume unnecessary energy sweeping up coarse particles
which expedites the separator wear. Constant and adequate levels of air flow
rate must be optimised to prevent any overloading and thermo-defect
situations which can be caused by an inadequate air flow.

8. Pressure inside the mill

The mill loading state is indicated by the differential pressure between inlet
and outlet mill points. Case of overloading is indicated by very high
differential [Link], very low differential pressure indicates under-
loading. Therefore, the mill pressure should by maintained in certain level in
order to avoid high levels of rejection and vibration operating conditions
which is caused by very high pressure. Moreover, the feeding process may be
blocked when the differential pressure reaches very low readings. The
differential pressure is governed by the flow rates of air and feed materials.

9. Re-circulation rate

Typically 15-25% of materials are returned to the mill for regrinding. The
rework ratio is proportional to air flow rate and rotational speed of the separator.
Accordingly, amount of rejected coarse particles is increased as the air flow rate is
increased with combination of high speed of the separator. Over-processing
situation is resulted from excessive re-circulation rate. High regrinding rate has
negative effects on the productivity and production costs. The optimal values of
returned materials to the mill’s inlet can be achieved through adjusting the air flow
rate. Moreover, the recirculation rate is a function in the separator speed based on
production fineness (Blaine number).The optimum recirculation rates for ordinary
cement are in range of 10-30% of the whole feed materials.

10. Separator speed

The separator rotational speed controls the fineness of the product. In other words

There is proportional relationship between the targeted product fineness and

separator speed; furthermore separator speed affects the amount of the rejected
coarse particles.

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3.3.3 Raw mix design

According to the laws of chemistry, it’s known that substances can only react with
each other in clearly defined proportions. For instance, combining 30 parts of
limestone with 70 parts of clay and under going on the above mentioned clinker
reaction processes will not produce a good quality cement clinker [if at all there is
no any technological problem]. However, 90 parts of limestone and 10 parts of clay
could be fired into cement clinker. So there is a need of proportioning the raw
materials available using the methodology called raw mix design.
For the production of cement it is necessary to have, or make raw material
mixtures whose chemical composition is with in certain limits. The continuous
product of high quality cement is possible only if the raw mix possesses optimum
composition and furthermore if variation in this composition remain with in the
narrowest possible range.

A proper raw mix design is based on the given raw materials situation, on the
process design and process requirements, on the product specifications, and on
environmental considerations. A well-designed raw mix has adequate fineness and
uniform chemical composition that are essential for

 obtain good quality clinker with minimum free lime

 obtain suitable liquid phase to carry the reactants
 build up optimum coating to elongate the refractory life time
 minimize the fuel consumption (cost factor)
 suitable smooth operation of kilns
This will be achieved by the proper proportioning of the oxides bearing raw
materials. The raw mix constituents comprise of the four major oxides ;( i.e. CaO,
SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3).

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[Link] Raw mix design parameters

The proportioning of raw mixes for Ordinary Portland cement is mostly based on the
following specific criteria:

1) Lime saturation factor (LSF)

2) Silica Ratio (SR)
3) Alumina Ratio (AR)
1) Lime saturation factor (LSF):-is the amount of CaO which is enough to
saturate or combine SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 to form Portland cement clinker.

LSF= [CaO / (2.8SiO2+1.2Al2O3+0.65Fe2O3)]*100

In order to produce good clinker, the LSF is usually kept between 92 and 98,
although the practical range extends from 89 to 105.

If the LSF is above 99, the raw mix could become harder to burn, which would result
in more fuel consumption and there will be excess CaO in the clinker. And the
excess uncombined lime causes expansion and cracks in hardened cement pastes.
If the LSF is below 90, the clinker is too easy to burn, the refractory brick may be
washed out, infiltrated with clinker melt and the kiln may choke with coating rings.

In general high LSF has the following effects:

a. Fuel consumption increases.
b. Burning zone temperature increases and heat loss by radiation
increases.
c. Brick life will be short.
d. Reducing condition in the kiln is formed which greatly affects clinker
quality and brick life.
e. Presence of Free CaO affects the quality of clinker and produces
unsound cement.
The following graph shows the effect of LSF upon the combinability
temperature

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2) Silica Ratio (SR): -the silica ratio establishes the relation between silica, alumina and iron; so
that the right amounts of the aluminates C3A and Ferrite C4AF are obtained in the clinker. The
normal range of SR for Ordinary Portland cement is 2.0-3.0.

SR= SiO2/ (Al2O3+Fe2O3)

The major effect of silica ratio is on the quantity of flux or liquid potentiality present
at clinkering temperature. When SR is low the quantity of liquid is high and vise
versa. Reducing the quantity of liquid (increasing SR) increases the proportion of
silicates, and at constant LSF this means an increase in Alite quantity. But
increasing SR leads to harder burning; more fuel consumption and heat loss by
radiation, reduces the amount of coating in the burning zone, produces dusty
clinker and reduces clinker burnability.

High SR values decrease burnability due to

 Increased probability of having big SiO2 particles in rawmeal

 Decreased amount of clinker melt
 A tendency for decreased homogeneity of rawmeal (segregation)

18
Low SR values may lead to excessive coating, fast brick infiltration with clinker melt,
snowman formation in cooler, and shark teeth build-up at the nose ring, brick
fluxing with alumina and iron and ash ring formation.

There are several ways to control the silica ratio: - decreasing or increasing the total
silica, alumina, and iron or a combination of all three. Severe condition for the brick
is created when a reduction in the amount of silica is coupled with an increase in
iron and alumina. In such cases the liquid phase and the heavy coating becomes
extremely harmful to the refractory lining in the burning zone.

The following graph shows the effect of silica ratio on the combinability temperature

LSF to SR ratio:
For proper kiln operation and stability, the clinker burnability must be within
acceptable values. One of the ways to express burnability is through the LSF/SR
ratio. As both the LSF and SR are increased, the mix becomes harder and harder to
burn and coating tends to disappear. If both modules are reduced at the same time,
the raw mix becomes easier and easier to burn and brick washouts are most likely
to occur

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3) Alumina Ratio (AR): Alumina ratio is given by the formula:
AR= Al2O3/Fe2O3

 Alumina ratio determines the viscosity of liquid phase. Low viscosity increase
sinter rate. The higher AR the more viscous the flux at a given temperatures.
At AR=1,38 clinker melt achieves optimum properties to promote sintering at
lowest possible temperatures (1280-1340 °C) and increases with increasing
AR. For most Portland cements the AR falls between 1.5 and 2.5. The higher
the AR, the higher is the viscosity. Eventual over heating of the burning zone
with low AR can cause severe brick infiltration or washout from the lower
transition to the nose ring.
High AR clinkers have high heat of hydration, high reactivity and tendency to
high early strength. Low AR clinkers are usually hard to grind and dark in
color.
 Alkalies and MgO can lower the viscosity of clinker melt.

[Link] Calculation of Raw Mix Composition

The purpose of calculating the composition of the raw mix is to determine the
quantitative proportions of the raw components, in order to give the clinker the
desired chemical and mineralogical composition for this there are many methods of
calculation from the most simple to the more complicated once. The basis of
calculation is the chemical composition of the raw materials. Generally, data of
chemical analyses should be accurate to two decimals results of analyses in excess
of 100% should be arithmetically reduced to 100% each constituent being
proportionally reduced. If on the other hand the total of the constituents is less than
100, the constituents are not proportionally increased to 100%. In this case the
difference from 100 is denoted as “rest”, so that the total of all constituents is then
100.

Methods for Calculating the Raw mix (proportioning or Raw-mix)

A) Two component system

In the two component system two raw materials used for the production of clinker,
lime stone and clay or high grade and low grade limestone can be used if they
satisfy the LSF. It can be done in two methods :- using the blending rule(Cross-
pattern Method) and based on LSF.

20
[Link] Rule (X-pattern)
It represents a linear estimation of two raw material components by selecting
the anticipated titration value (total carbonate content) of the potential raw
mix as basis.

Example :- the raw material analysis result from the lab shows that
limestone contains 94.5% CaCO3 and clay 7.7% CaCO3. Calculate the
proportion of raw material required for making clinker of OPC if the
percentage of the two raw material to be mixed to prepare the raw mix of
76% CaCO3.

Solution :-

Component of limestone 68.3 (76-7.7)

94.5% CaCO3
CaCO3 content of potential
Raw mix 76%

Component of Clay 18.5 (94.5 -76)

7.7% CaCO3

The raw mix should be proportioned as

Limestone = 68.3 = 3.69 to 1

Clay 18.5

3.69 parts of limestone should mixed with 1 part of clay or 78.68% of lime stone
with 21.32% of clay.

2. Calculation based on lime saturation factor (LSF)

This method is also applicable for two material components with LSF selected for
the clinker.

Let X parts of limestone mixed with 1 parts of clay

X = LSF (2.8S2+1.2A2+0.65F2)-C2)

(C1 – LSF (2.8S1+1.2A1+0.65 F1)

Target

21
 LSF 0.96

Raw material
Raw mix Material (%)
LSOB clay
LSOB 91.32
SiO2 10.61 43.42 13.46
Clay 8.68
Al2O3 1.99 22.04 3.73

Fe2O3 0.95 17.57 2.40

CaO 45.82 1.43 41.96

LOI 38.95 11.76 36.59

B) Three component system

Calculation with lime saturation factor and silica ratio

Limestone Clay Sand

stone

SiO2 S1 S2 S3

Al2O3 S1 A2 A3

Fe2O3 S1 F2 F3

CaO S1 C2 C3

The calculation is performed under the assumption that “X” parts of limestone by
weight (component I) and “Y” parts by weight of clay (Component 2) and
proportioned to one part by weight of sand (component 3)

SM= SiO2

Al2O3 +Fe2O3

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 LSF = CaO

2.8SiO2 + 1.2Al2O3 + 0.65 Fe2O3

1. X(C1-LSF(2.8S1+1.2A1+0.65F1)+Y(C2-
LSF(2.8S2+1.2A2+0.65F2)]=LSF(2.8S3+1.2A3 +0.65 F3)-C3

2. X[Sl-SM(A1+F1)]+y(S2-SM(A2+F2)] = SM(A3+F3)-S3

Solve X and Y simultaneously once the values of X and Y are got the different
percentages of the components are calculated.

E .g

Target

LSF 0.98

SM 2.10

Raw materials Raw

LSOB Clay Sand mix
Calculated percentage

SiO2 7.57 42.26 84.95 13.13 Materia Dry % Wet %

l
Al2O3 1.53 23.12 6.23 3.77
LSOB 87.42 85.79
Fe2O3 0.78 17.85 1.82 2.48
Clay 9.78 11.37
CaO 47.97 0.75 1.68 42.05
Sand 2.80 2.84
LOI 40.47 11.30 2.60 36.55

Moistur 3.14 18 8 4.90

e

Moisture in % = (wet weight-dry weight)*100/Wet weight

Step 1 convert dry % into dry weight

Assume the raw mix weight 100 Ton. Thus the weight of LSOB, Clay & sand in ton
become 87.41, 9.78 & 2.8 respectively.

23
Step 2 Calculate the wet weight in ton by using moisture & dry weight of
each material

The wet weight of LSOB, Clay & Sand in ton becomes 90.06, 11.93 & 2.98
respectively.

Step 3 Calculate the wet % of each material based on wet weight

Wet % of LSOB=90.06*100/(90.06+11.93+2.98) = 85.79

Wet % of clay =11.93*100/(90.06+11.93+2.98) = 11.37

Wet % of sand =2.98*100/(90.06+11.93+2.98) = 2.84

C. Four component system

Calculation with LSF, SR and AR

L/stone Clay Iron Sand

SiO2 S1 S2 S3 S4

Al2O3 A1 A2 A3 A4

Fe2O3 F1 F2 F3 F4

CaO C1 C2 C3 C4

The calculation is performed under the assumption that “X” part of lime stone by
weight (component .1), “Y” parts by weight of clay (component 2-) and “Z” parts by
weight of iron (component -3), are proportioned to one part by weight of sand
(Component -4)

LSF = CaO

2.8SiO2 + 1.2Al2O3+0.65 Fe2O3

SM = SiO2

Al2O3 + Fe2O3

AM = Al2O3

Fe2O3

24
1) X[Cl-LSF(2.8S1+1.2 A1+0.65F1)] +
Y[C2-LSF(2.8S2+1.2A2+0.65F2)]+
Z[C3-LSF(2.8S3+1.2A3+0.65 F3)]=
LSF (2.8S4+1.2 A4+0.65 F4)-C4

2) x[S1 –SM(A1+F1)] + Y[S2-SM(A2+F2)]+

Z[ S3-SM(A3+F3)] =SM(A4+F3)S4

3) x[ A1- AM(F1)]+Y[A2-AM(F2)] +
Z[A3-AM(F3)]=AM(F4)-A4

The find x, y and z from the above three equations.

% Lime stone = x * 100

X+y+z+1
% clay = y *100
X+y+z+1

% Iron ore = z * 100

X+y+z+1
% sand = 1 *100
x+y+z+1

E.g Calculation of a raw mix by the aid of four raw materials.

[Link]. L/stone clay Iron Sand Raw mix

SiO2 6.2 42.6 2.0 72.8 13.54

Al2O3 1.1 11.7 0.9 5.6 2.95

Fe2O3 0.6 4.7 91.2 3.8 1.97

CaO 49.9 8.8 3.0 8.5 41.91

Ratio :

Limestone x = 41.21 % limestone = 80.68

Clay y = 8.527 % clay = 16.68

Iron z = 0.352 % Iron = 0.69

25
 Sand 1 = 1.000 % sand = 1.95

51.08

3.3.4 Raw meal fineness and particle size distribution

Reactivity & burnability of cement raw mixes are two fundamental properties,
which determine throughput of the plant & Sp. Heat consumption in the
clinkering process. The burnability of the cement raw mix depends on the
reactivity of raw mix.

The factors influencing the reactivity can be divided into two groups.

 The raw mix preparation (chemical & granulometric composition)

 Inherent characteristics of raw materials, which cannot be modified
 Calcite (CaCO3) crystals
 Rhombo
 Cubic
 Silica containing method
 Quartz
 Silica sand
 Clays
 Caolinit
 Kaolinit (A14(OH)8Si4O10)
E.g Quartz is the most detrimental mineral, which affect the burnability of the
Raw mix.

A) Raw meal Fineness: -

The advantages of increasing the raw meal fineness are:

 Shorter time required for preheating of suspended raw meal in preheater.

 Faster calcination and clinkerization reactions.
 Increase in clinker production rate.
 Reduction in specific fuel consumption.

The disadvantages of increasing the raw meal fineness are:

 Increase in specific power consumption of raw mix grinding.

Depending on chemical and physical characteristics of the raw mix, optimum
fineness has to fixed by considering all the above mentioned factors.

B) Particle size distribution (PSD) of raw meal

The effect of PSD on burnability of almost identical chemistry of cement raw

mixes was examined by sintering them in identical condition.

It is found that the burnability basically depends on the inherent physical

characteristics of the raw materials used & PSD of the ground raw mixes.

26
 The PSD may cause variation in the degree of Burnability of chemically identical
raw mixes.

A proper control of PSD drastically reduces the grinding cost of the material.

Conclussion

Recent studies have demonstrated that PSD of the raw material plays a major
decisive role than the simple fineness in determine in pyroporocessing & final
material [Link] mix having lower fine fraction & higher average
particle size is poor in burning (Burnability depends on PSD).

Therefore,PSD & fineness should be maintained in their desired value so as to let

the plant operate efficiently.

3.3.5 Raw meal homogenization

Raw meal is homogenized & stored in silos that hold three to four days production.
These may work continuously (E.g. Line 2 & 3) or batch-wise (E.g. Line 1), in multi-
stage systems, and in combination with air agitation. In modern plants, the trend is
large, continuously operating silos. In most systems not using air for blending, the
material filled into the silo forms layers representing the variation in composition,
and the reclaiming process is designed so that a large number of these layers are
represented in the material leaving the silo. The simplest example is the funnel flow
system, in which an inverted cone is formed over the funnel formed by the central
discharge (E.g. Line 3). The material slides down the cone cutting a number of
layers. In this way materials from the different layers are mixed.

It follows that the silos, working as continuous blending systems, have to be full in
order to have a blending effect. If the silos are only partially full, the variations in
the raw mix composition from the raw mill will go directly to the kiln. In modern raw
mill control systems, the variation in raw meal composition is controlled by bringing
the sum of variations from the set point of a parameter, whether it is C 3S or LSF, to
zero within a given time, ts. The t s has to be lower than the retention time,
otherwise the blending system will not be able to blend. If t s is too large, the
variable raw meal composition will pass right through the blending system. In other
words, ts should be as short as possible in order to obtain optimum blending
efficiency.

The basic principle of blending process is one or combination of the following

mechanisms.

 Distribution of input raw meal at the blending silo top.

 Pneumatic dry blending by aeration of raw meal by the aeration units placed
at the bottom of silo.
 Segmental aeration (octant or quadrant system) with difference in the
pressure of air supplied for aeration of various segments for thorough mixing
of raw mix.
 Method of extraction to kiln feed

27
 Note: Homogeneity or uniformity of the raw mix composition has to be carefully
controlled on permanent basis by adequate sampling and chemical analysis.

 Importance of Raw Meal Homogeneity

There are only two reasons for the clinker free lime to change in a situation with
stable kiln operation and fuel ash: variation in the chemical composition of the kiln
feed or variations in its fineness. Variations in fineness depend on possible changes
in raw materials or in operation of the raw mill. Variation in chemical composition is
related to raw mix control and the homogenization process.

To ensure a constant quality of the product and maintain a stable and continuous
operation of the kiln, attention must be paid to storage and homogenization of raw
materials and kiln feed. This article discusses the role of raw mix control and the
homogenization process, assuming the raw materials and fuel ash do not vary and
the raw mill operation is in full control.

 Homogeneity and burnability

Insufficient control of the raw mixture and its blending will cause large variations in
the chemical composition of the kiln feed.

If the kiln is operated at a constant material residence time and temperature, such
variations also will cause variations in clinker composition, including free lime. This
is important because the free lime is usually used as the process parameter to
indicate how well the clinker is burned. When unintended variation in kiln feed
composition causes large variation in free lime, operators may make incorrect
changes to kiln operation, assuming changes are needed when they are not.

Variations in the kiln feed chemical composition affect its burnability and eventually
the fuel consumption. Higher values will result in higher clinker free lime but still
give a well burned clinker. If an increase in clinker free lime is perceived as
“underburning” and countered by attempts to burn harder, the result will be
increased fuel consumption. To discuss the homogeneity aspect of clinkering, let's
look at two examples. These scenarios will assume that we begin in the same plant,
under the same conditions, with the same inhomogeneous kiln feed. The examples
demonstrate two methods of responding to the feed inhomogeneity.

 Effect on Fuel Consumption, Kiln Operation, Clinker, Cement

Performance

Example

28
Response: Burn Harder
Discussion

Insufficient mix control or blending will result in larger variations than anticipated in
chemical analysis. The result is variations in clinker free lime. The operator may be
obliged to increase the burning zone temperature to achieve the desired free lime
level — by keeping the kiln on the hot side, the maximum clinker free lime is
brought to the average value and the spikes are eliminated.

As a result of this harder burning, fuel consumption increases. The fuel penalty for
burning to an average of 0.8% free lime because of large variability instead of an
average of 1% can easily be on the order of 4%.

When the kiln is operated on the hot side, alkalis and sulfate become more volatile.
This, in turn, might increase the possibility for build-ups in the cooler parts of the
kiln system. In severe cases, controlling the kiln may become difficult because of
surges of the material through the kiln.

Hard burning tends to cause low clinker porosity, large crystals of alite, and often
contributes to generation of dust instead of good, nodular clinker. It also slows down
the cooling process, both because the maximum temperature is higher, and
because the low-porosity clinker is more difficult to cool.

These effects all can result in cement with reduced strength potential and increased
water demand. Reduced clinker porosity can make the clinker harder to grind,
increasing finish mill power consumption or reducing mill production. Clinker
temperatures exiting the cooler may increase, further increasing fuel consumption
and presenting handling problems. The high-temperature conditions may lead to
color variations, reductions in clinker alkali and sulfate level, and increases in water
demand attributable to increased levels of aluminate.

Variations in clinker alkali and sulfate will affect concrete setting time, and result in
strength variations. Periods with decreased clinker alkali content will result in a
decrease in early strength and increase in later-age strength; the opposite can
occur during periods when the clinker alkali content increases. With such variability,
fresh concrete often develops admixture incompatibility and changes in its
rheological behavior.

 Blending Factor

For calculation of blending factor of a silo, input and output raw meal samples are to
be collected in regular intervals and to be tested for CaCO3 content.

29
Silo input samples to be collected for a period of one theoretical filling of silo with
an interval not exceeding 1.5 hours and a minimum 40 samples are to be collected.
For optimum blending efficiency silo should be filled more than 70%. The output
samples are to be collected at an interval of 3 to 5 minutes after the input samples
are collected and a minimum of 20 samples are to be collected.

The standard deviation of the input samples as well as output samples are to be
calculated. The blending factor is the ratio of standard deviation of input raw meal
to standard deviation of output raw meal. The more the blending factor, the
blending is more effective.

There are various types blending silos having blending factor from 6:1 to 15:1.

3.4 Kiln meal/Feed

3.4.1 Purpose
Kiln feed control has only informative character. It provides guide line
information(LSF,SR,AM) for kiln operation on currently processed material as well
as indications on the raw material blending and homogenizing efficiency. A poor
kiln feed uniformity caused by poor raw mill control & low homogenization silo
efficiency.

3.4.2 Process’s variables and factors

 Material burn-ability
The burn-ability of feed meal has vital role on required energy and kiln
efficiency.

The material burn-ability has arranged as easy, normal, or difficult to burn. The
burn-ability is depends on many factors such as: homogeneity, component
composition, and fineness of feed meal. There is interrelationship between feed
meal burn-ability and clinkering process properties such as: residence time,
maximum temperature and pressure, and cooling rate.

Chemical Composition & parameters of Kiln Meal

30
 Desired
Chemical Composition % Parameters
Range

SiO2 % 12 - 13 LSF 94

Al2O3 % 3.5 - 4 SR 2.2

Fe2O3 % 2-3

CaO % 42 - 44

MgO % 0.5 - 0.8

Finesses on 90 micron
<13
residue

Ignition loss % 35.5 - 36

CaCO3 76.5 - 77.2

3.4.3 Uniformity

Uniformity is one of the most important prerequisites for smooth and efficient kiln
operation. Excessive fluctuations can easily upset the often less than robust balance
of appropriate burning behavior, thus giving rise to operational disturbances.
Further more, since the clinker should always be adequately burnt, un necessarily
hard burning is practiced for much of the production time.

Consequences are:-

 high fuel consumption

 increased tendency to ring and build up formation
 reduced brick life time
 fluctuations in product quality

 Sources of fluctuations

- raw components: chemical and mineralogical composition

31
- raw meal : chemical and mineralogical composition, Fineness, disturbances in
feed rate to the mill.
- Combustible : ash content, sulphur content, calorific value, fineness
- Dust return: different modes of return during direct or indirect operation
- Feed rates: equipment related fluctuations at constant (kiln feed, combustibles)
settings.
- Abrupt manual adjustment of kiln operation parameters
- Abrupt and excessive adjustment initiated by automatic control loops.
 Acceptable variability of kiln feed composition

Since the reduction of material variability is associated with costs for

homogenization and control, and an acceptable, optimized target has to be
established for each specific situation. Raw meals or clinkers of an extreme
composition (e.g. LS close to 100, high SR, high AR) or with unfavorable fineness
characteristics require more stringent variation limits than easy to burn clinkers.
What eventually can be achieved, depends on the complexity of the raw material
situation, the pre-blending and homogenizing facilities as well as on the efficiency of
the quality control system.

 Means of improving uniformity

The kiln feed uniformity is a result of various factors along the preparation process,
starting from the raw material deposits and going through several stages of
homogenization and blending.

Possibilities for improvements can be found in the following areas.

 Exploitation planning

Medium to long term exploitation planning, based on accurate raw materials

inventory. Application of computer based methods.

 Quarry scheduling
Short term quarry scheduling, based on blast hole dust analysis. Application
of computer based methods
 Raw material pre-blending

32
  Blending control
Blending control at integrated pre-blending stock pile and raw mill.
Appropriate section of sampling regime & analytical methods. Various
degrees of automation from manual to on line, or even to “real-time” with
bulk material analyzer.
 Raw meal homogenization

3.5. Hot meal

3.5.1 Purpose

The control of the hot meal composition can have various objectives:

 Determination of concentration of volatile elements(SO3,Alkalies,chlorine) in

the case of kiln systems affected by build up formation in the preheaters
and/or kiln inlet area.
 Determination of non-burnt combustibles introduced with the kiln feed or the
secondary firing.
 Determination of the degree of precalcination in precalciner & preheater
kilns.

3.5.2 Process interaction

 The level of volatile elements indicate changes in the absolute and relative
input of circulation elements with raw meal and fuel,and corrective actions
can-if possible-be initiated.
 Improving combustion efficiency of precalciner and consequantly maitain the
appropriate hot meal degree of calcination before entering to kiln.

3.5.3 Determination of Calcination Degree

Calcination degree ( %) = 10000 (LOI kiln meal – LOI sample)

LOI kiln meal (100-LOI sample)

3.6 Clinker

33
3.6.1 Basic Clinker Chemistry
The clinkering process can be considered to occur in five consecutive stages;

1) Drying: The water present as uncombined moisture in the raw meal is

driven out at a temperature above 100 0c
2) Dehydration of clay minerals (preheating zone): The raw meal is
heated up to drive off the water which is combined in the crystal structure
of silica, aluminum and ferric oxides leaving these oxides hot and
reactive. The temperature rises to about 850 0c
3) De-carbonation Zone (Calcination zone): calcium carbonate is
dissociated by heat, giving reactive lime and carbon dioxide gas, the
temperature rises to about 1000 0c.
4) Burning zone : The burning zone is where combination takes place
between the lime ( CaO), and the silica (SiO 2 ), Alumina ( Al2O3 ) and ferric
oxide (Fe2O3) to form the four basic clinker components (i.e. C 3S,C2S,C4AF
and C3A). The basic chemical reactions taking place in the burning zone
are the following:

i) Ferrite formation
CaO+ Al2O3+ Fe2O3 -------------> C4AF (4CaO. Al2O3. Fe2O3)

ii) Aluminates formation

CaO+ Al2O3 -------------> C3A (3 CaO. Al2O3)

iii) Belite formation

CaO+ SiO2 -------------> C2S (2 CaO. SiO2)

iv) Alite formation

C2S + CaO -------------> C 3S (3 CaO. SiO2)

5) Cooling zone: It is the final stage of clinker production. At this stage

there is additional formation of C 3S by combination of free lime (CaO) and
Belite ( C2S ) and solidification of the liquid phase (crystallization).

34
The following table shows, the principal reactions occurring and the principal
temperature ranges over which reaction takes place:

Chemical transformation
Temperatur Chemical Process
e 0
c

200 -100 0c Escape of free water None

100-4000c Escape of adsorbed water None

Al4(OH)8Si4O10 ---------->
Decomposition of clay with formation
400-750 c 0

of meta kaolinate 2(Al2O3.SiO2) +H2O

Decomposition of meta kaolinate & Al2O3.SiO2 ---------> Al2O3+

600-9000c
other compounds SiO2

CaCO3 ------>CaO+CO2

Decomposition of lime stone and CaO+ Al2O3 +

600-1000 c 0 formation CS and CA
3 CaO+2 SiO2+ Al2O3----->
2(CaO. SiO2)+ CaO+ Al2O3

CS+C -----> C2S

Up take of lime by CS &CA ; and up 2C+S------> C2S

800-1300 c 0
take of F by the compounds formed to
form C2S,C3A and C4AF CA+2C------>C3A

CA+3C+F-----> C4AF

1250-14500c Up take of lime by C2S to form C3S C2S+C---rev--> C3S

Decomposition rate of limestone is increased by

 Increase in temperature of raw meal

 Lowering CO2 partial pressure in combustion gases

35
  Lowering dust load of combustion gases
 Lowering particle size of raw meal
 Decreasing crystal content of CaCO3
 Silicic acid formed by decomposition of clay minerals
Heating Rate And Dissotiation Speed of limestone

 Low HR(100 °K/min): DS depends on transport phenomena (gas-heat): heat

flow to and gas transport from the inner of the limestone particles.
 High particle size and HR(250 °K/min): DS hindered by low heat conductivity
and high CO2 partial pressure.
 High HR (450 °K/min): Increased reactivity of CaO with SiO2 (from800
to1000°C). No recrystalization and deffects in crystal lattice.
 Kiln speed: lower rpm produce higher HR.
 Alkalies (up to2%) increase DS by lowering activation energy for limestone.

Sintering (Reactions with liquid phase)

 Starts at 900-1000 °C (calcium silicates and aluminates. No C3S formation)

 Free CaO starts decreasing at above1250 °C(as melts appear and C3S
formation accelerates).
 Viscosity of melt affected by circulation phenomena (low melting point
compounds) and AR.
 Reversion from C3S to C2S can ocurr at isothermal conditions.
C3S C2S + CaO

Sintering
Temperature

 At 1250 °C : mostly C2S forms

 Below 1450 °C : C3S formation too slow.
 Reversion from C3S to C2S possible
 Above1450 °C: quantity of melt increases, viscosity decreases. Sintering
reaction rate increases.
 Above1500 °C: cost/benefit too high.

Heating rate between 900-1300 °C

 High HR at 1450°C: high reactivity, no recrystalization

 High HR at1700 °C good strengthdue to high C3S with small crystal size. Too
expensive.
 Belite cement: possible through very fast cooling, 1000 °K/min (crystal lattice
defects/disturbances) but technically unfeasible...yet!

Reaction Equilibria

Belite + CaO Alite

36
Shift in reaction equilibria by changes in:

 Temperature (+R;-L)
 Quantity of melt ((+R; -L)
 Melt viscosity (+L; -R)
 Heating Rate between 1200-1450 °C (+R; -L)
 Clinker cooling rate1450-1200 °C (+eq. “Freezes”-L)
 Time at isothermal conditions (above1350°C) (+L; -R)
 Fe++ content in Alite (reducing atmosphere) (+L; -R)
Fluxes

 Lower melting temperature and melt viscosity.

 Heavy metals (Ba, Sr, Ce, Cr, P,Ti, Zn) act as fluxes at up to3% Wt.
(V2O5,Cr2O3, BaO) at 0,5% wt.
 They must bind with clinker to be active.
Effects of fluxes on quality

 (-) Sett. time

 (+) Strenght (Cr)
 (+) Grindability

3.6.2 Objectives of clinker control

The objectives of clinker control are :

 Assurance of an adequate clinker quality in view of the final product cement.

 Support for an efficient kiln operation at low heat consumption.

3.6.3 Operational measurements on clinker

1. Litre Weight: The litre weight of a selected fraction of the clinker product
is measured. It is usually of 5-10mm or 6-12mm particles that are sieved
and weighed in a cup with fixed volume. The top of the cup is leveled with a
ruler. The measurement in g/lt is generally between [Link] litre
weight of a clinker type at a specific plant correlates to the free lime when
burnability remains constant. Higher temperature generally gives higher
litre weight but very hgh temperatures can lower the litre weight because of
dust agglomerates.
2. Free lime(uncombined CaO): the primary criteria of clinker quality. This
is because
Too high free lime: Loss in strength potential, increase of cement
expansion, disturbances in cement grinding

Too low free lime : Loss in cement reactivity, excessive heat consumption,
poor grindability

37
 The free lime measurement is carried out on a representative sample of the clinker
product. Generally the free lime is targeted just below 1.5%. Composition,
temperature, residence time & burnability influence the achieved free lime level.

CORRELATION BETWEEN FREE LIME CONTENT, LITERWEIGHT

AND SILICA MODULUS

Liter weight at give SM is as follows

SM 3.2: - 88.9xCaO free + 1339 gm

/L (r= -0.95)

SM 2.8 : - 105.6xCaO free + 1453 gm/L (r= - 0.94)

SM 2.4 : – 190.2 CaO free +1723 gm

/L (r = 0.95)

Generally CaO free inversely proportional to liter weight at a given SM.

LOSS OF CORRELATION BETWEEN FREE LIME CONTENT AND LITERWEIGH

FOR OVERBURNT CLINKER

RSI
ON
VE

PO
IN

IN
T
1600 1600

1500 1500

1400 1400

1300 1300
S
REA

1200 1200
C
SE

E
DE

L
NORMAL BURNING
REA

1100 1100
TER WEIGHT
HARD BURNING

OVER BURNING
IN C

SOFT BURNING

1000 1000

900 900

800 800

HEAT SUPPLY

3.6.4 Process’s variables, factors and Process interaction

1. Air flow rates
Kiln hot gases pass upward in countercurrent to fed meal flow. The hot gases have
vital role in controlling thermo chemical process. These gases can be divided into
two categories: primary air, and tertiary air.

38
 a) The primary air is the fresh air that supplied into kiln’s burning zone
forming the right mixture with fuel for combustion process.

b) The cooler exhaust gas which known as (Tertiary air) is utilized in

attempt of heat recovery process. The tertiary air is supplied to the
Precalciner’s combustion chamber. Temperature of the tertiary air is
controlled by clinker bed thickness, and cooling air flow rate at cooler and
cooler speed.

The high flow rate of kiln exhausted gases cause suspension situation of the
fed meal at the Precalciner. Consequently excessive quantity of raw meal must be
supplied in order to maintain steady materials flow rates; however dramatic
pressure drop cross is caused by increase status of materials recirculation within
the kilning system resulting in energy consumption, clinker quality, production cost,
and efficiency. Therefore, in order to enhance the overall performance an optimal
flow rate of air has to be maintained.

2. Flame Characteristics:

Flame characteristics within kiln burning and calcination zones have a vital impact
on the clinker quality, processing time, breakdown time, and equipment
performance. Controlling of the flame features is extremely essential in order to
avoid the main troubles that may occur and improve the whole line performance.
There are a number of key factors have to be optimised in order to control and
adjust the flame characteristics; these key factors are.

 Flame temperature: is accounted as one of the most main key factors

which control the whole production line and specially the thermo-chemical
process. Therefore, the flame temperature has to be optimised through
controlling and adjusting the primary air flow rate and Oxygen concentration.
For example high levels of primary air flow rates reduce the flame
temperature resulting in clinker quality and production costs. An excessive
primary air flow rate means high heat loos by carrying extra heat to the
preheating zone, then released to the atmosphere. On the other hand low
tertiary air temperature reduces the flame temperature at Precalciner.
Overheating and forming rings situations within the kiln are proportional to
flame temperature at low levels rate of primary air and high Oxygen
concentration levels. These situations affect the product quality and
breakdown time. Consequently; the primary air flow rate, tertiary air
temperature, and Oxygen concentration have to be controlled and adjusted
accurately in order to optimise the flame temperature.

 Flame length: Short burning zone minimises the heat loss from shell and
the kiln far end. The short intensive flame improves the clinker quality
through rapid processes of heating and cooling the clinker i.e. it prevents
attempt of any undeserved crystallising process. On one hand extremely
short and intensive flame causes an overheating case at the burning zone,
while the kiln in general is cooled. On the other hand long flame gives slow

39
 heating up and cooling processes, which produce large clinker crystals. These
large crystals affect the quality and grind-ability of the clinker. Long flame
produces more ring formation. The flame length is reduced due to rising
levels of primary air flow rate and Oxygen concentration, reduction of tertiary
air temperature, and faster mixing process of fuel and air, and

 Flame stability: stable flame has vital impact on the thermo-chemical

process. Flame stability is important to achieve high clinker quality and
process efficiency. Unstable flame results in product quality and breakdown
time, through rapid heating and cooling of the kiln refractory. Flame stability
can be adjusted by controlling the flow rate of primary

 Volatile concentration

Build-up is resulted from increase in concentration of volatile constituents at the

preheater during the process of heat exchange at high evaporating pressure.
Volatile components will evaporate and swept-up along the preheater, where they
start to condense at low temperature zone forming internal circuit in the kiln.
Continual evaporation and condensation increases the concentration of volatile
components until the internal circuit is closed. Volatile constituents are key factor of
clinker quality, kiln reliability and capability, and overall performance. In order to
optimise the kiln performance, the concentration of volatile components should be
kept at minimum levels.

3. Residence time of raw meal within the kiln

It is the required time by the raw materials to travel along the kiln. It has been
proved that the vital role of slope and rotational speed of the kiln for determining
the length of residence time.

4. Cooler speed

The speed of grate cooler is indicated by number of strokes per minute

(stroke/min).As the cooler speed increases, the clinker bed is reduced. This will
enhance the heat exchange process between the clinker nodules and cooling air;
however high wear level is recognised at over speeding cooler. Therefore the cooler
speed has to be adjusted to the optimised level.

5. Materials bed thickness

Cooling process is the heat exchange between hot clinker nodules and cold
fresh air; hence the cooling process will be quicker at little layers of clinker
nodules rather than at cumulated thickness clinker bed. On the other hand

40
 the processing time will be longer resulting in higher production costs; as a
consequence an optimum clinker bed thickness has to be achieved.

Chemical composition, parameters and minerals of clinker

Chemical Chemical
% %
Composition Composition

SiO2 20 - 21.5 Free Lime <2.5

Al2O3 5.7 - 5.9 C3S 50 - 55

Fe2O3 3.6 - 3.9 C2S 20 - 24

CaO 65.0 - 66.0 C3A 8.5 - 9.5

MgO ≤1.0 C4AF 11.0 - 12.0

SO3 ≤1.2 Liquid Phase 25.5 - 27.5

Loss in Ignition ≤0.15 Coating Index 31.5 - 33

LSF 94 - 98 Burnablity factor 113 - 116

SM 2.1 - 2.3 Liter weight 1250-1350g/lt

AM 1.5 - 1.6

4. Factors that affects the correlation between raw meal and clinker
composition

41
It is known that the set points of the raw meal composition have to be such that the
target composition of the clinker is being obtained. Allowance has there fore, to be
made for:

 The kiln dust absorption in the raw mill( kiln dust composition can
significantly deviate from the kiln feed composition)
 The discarding of the kiln dust
 Systematic errors in sampling and analysis
The primary target is the clinker composition. If any of the above factors change,
the raw meal set point has to be adjusted accordingly.

A practical example for a case where such changes have evidently occurred after
along kiln stop, but without any change on the raw meal set point, is given below.

Month Decembe January February June July August

r

Raw 99.1 98.00 97.8 96.0 97.0 97.2

Kiln
meal
Monthly stop
LSF
average
values Clinker 98.1 96.8 97.1 99.7 100.0 100.4
LSF

Clinker 1.4 0.8 0.9 2.1 1.9 2.1

Free
CaO

Comments (Discussion)

1. What are the possible actions which have taken during maintenance?

2. What could be the possible cause which changes the LSF correlation between
raw meal and clinker before & after maintenance?
5. Cement Plant Control (follow-up) parameters

42
The formulas presented here were taken from the current technical literature, &
ordered in an adequate manner.

The usual ranges presented are only orientative and may change considerably from
plant to plant.

1. Lime Saturation Factor (LSF)

This formula is based on the evidence that MgO up to 2% will be totally combined
with clinker minerals partially replacing CaO.

The excess Mgo over 2% is preseted in the final clinker as periclase grains which
depending on the clinker cooling rate, may lead to volumetric expansion during
hydration.

LSF (Mgo < 2) = 100(CaO+0.75MgO)

2.85SiO2+1.18Al2O3+0.65Fe2O3

LSF (Mgo>2) = 100(CaO+1.5MgO)

2.85SiO2+1.18Al2O3+0.65Fe2O3

Usual range= 90-98

OBS

 The SO3 is not included because it is supposed to react preterentially with

alkalies during clinker burning
A) when LSF>98
Clinker burning is difficult there is atendency to high free lime content, the
potential C3S is higher as well as the cement early strength and the heat of
hydration.

B) When LSF< 90
Clinker burning is easy wih low heat consumption. Free lime content is usually
low. Due to the excess of liquid phase in the burning Zone, there is atendency to
ring formation and coating washing. The basic bricks are infiltrated with clinker
phases.

The potential C3S is lowered and the C 2S is increased proportionally. The heat of
hydration of the finished cement tends to lower [Link] clinker is bally and
the nodules are hard to grind. The final strength is increased. Depending on the

43
 SR and on the cooling rate, may occur clinker dusting dueto the Beta C 2S
inversion.

2. Silica Ratio (SR)

SR = SiO2

Al2O3 +Fe2O3

Usual= 1.8-3.4(2<SR<3)

The SR expresses the ration between the calcium Silicates and the in terstitial
phase of the clinker. The higher the SR the higher will be the C 3S +C2S contents
and the lower will be the C3 A+C4AF contents.

a) When SR>3
Clinker burning is impaired due to a decrease in the liquid phase content.
There is a tendency to dust formation and coating instabili zation. Spurrite
rings may appear at the transition Zone. The coating when formed,has a low
resistance to their thermal shocks. The tendency to clinker dusting is
increased as well as the time of setting of cement.

b) When SR<2

The burnability factor (BF) of cliker is decreased and an excess of liguid

phase is present in the burning zone. The coating has low sof tening
temperature and it is often washed away. The resulting bally clinker is hard to
grind and its strengths are lowered. The time of setting of cement is shortened
and the heat of hydration increased.

3) Alumina Iron Ratio (AR)

AR = Al2O3

Fe2O3

Usual= 1.3-2.5

The AR greatly Controls the Viscosity of the liquid phase and the kinetics of C 3A
[Link] to 1338 0c, to an increase in the

AR corresponds an increase in the amount of liquid phase. In the C-S-A-F-

eguilibrium diagram the 1338 0c euthetic is formed when the AR= 1.38. In
presence of MgO, S03 & alkalies, the effect of AR is diminished

44
 A) When AR>2.5

Too Viscous liquid phase,high early strergth and high heat of hydration in
cement, low sufate resistance and also a marked tendency to guick Setting

B) When AR<0.64

There is no possibility for C3A formation. The liquid phase has a high density and
low viscosity. The clinker is highly sulfate resistant and has a moderate heat of
hydration. Clinker burning is impaired.

4) % Liquid phase at the burning zone (Lph)

The liquid phase is imprescindible for C 3S formation during clinker burning. The
normal value at 1450 0C is 25%.For the quaternary system C-S-A-F the peritetic
temperature is [Link] the kiln is usually operated at higher
temperatures to speed up the chemical reactions.

If AR>1.38 %Lph = 6.1Fe2O3+MgO+K2O+ Na2O +SO3 @ 13380C

IF AR< 1.38 %Lph = 8.2Al2O3-5.22Fe2O3+MgO+K2O+Na2O+S03 @ 13380C

IF AR>or=0.64 %Lph = 3.00 Al2O3+2.25 Fe2O3+ MgO + K2O + Na2O +S03 @1450 0C

Usual Lph at 1450 0C = 25-28

In the presence of Al2O3, Fe2O3, K2O, Na2O & S03 the following effect on viscosity
of the liquid phase:

 Al2O3, Na2O & K2O = Increase the liquid phase Viscosity

 Fe2O3 and S03 = Decrease the liquid phase Viscosity

A) When %Lph <20

Tendency to dusty (fine) clinker, scarce coating & ring formation. The raw meal
charge advances continuously towards the burning zone causing kiln disturbances
and upsets. Alkalies circulation phenomena are increased and the preheater is
continuo usly blocked. Dust rings are formed in transition and burning zone

B) when % Lph >30

As explained before, excessive liquid formation causes severe attack to the basic
bricks in the burning zone. The burden slides down the lining and coating, instead of
cascading. C3s is formed but decomposes easily into C 2S and free lime.

5. Coating index (CI)

45
The coating index has much to do with the coating formation and stability.

If AR > or = o.64 CI=C3A+C4AF+0.2* C2S +2*Fe2O3 usual 27-32

If AR <o.64 CI=C2F+ C 4AF+0.2* C2S +2*Fe2O3

A) When CI <20 No coating is formed

B) When CI >30 Excessive but unstable coating, with tendency to ring formation.

6. Minimum Burning temperature 0C

BT in0C=1300+4.51C3S-3.74C3A-12.64C4AF

It is an empirical but very useful formula. Accordingly the higher the C 3S content,
the higher clinker burning temperature for a given free lime content. Both the
C3Aand the C4 AF decrease the temperature, and the C 4AF is 4 times more effective
in this aspect. For instance, when C 3S is 54 compare two situations.

a. C3A= 11 and C4 AF = 8 BT in0C =1401

b. C3A= 8 and C4AF =11 BT in0C =1374
The lower the burning temperature, the less heat will be consumed and the higher
the brick life.

7. Burnability index (BI)

The BI serves to compare the easiness of burning two different clinkers.

The higher the BI difficult will be the burning.

BI = C3S Usual 2.6-3.5 (lower=best)

C3A+C4AF

High early strength clinker, rich in C 3S, will be more difficult to burn than an
ordinary clinker.

8. Burnability Factor (BF)

This is another way to express the burnability of a given clinker or raw meal. It is
easier to calculate BI because it involves directly the chemical moduli and not the
potential composition. Both are fault the raw meal fineness is not taken into
account

BF=LSF+10*SR-3*(MgO+Alkalis) Usual 105-120 (Best 108)

This formula takes into account the effect of MgO and alkalies in the burnability

46
9. Alkalis Equivalent

The AE expresses the total alkalis content converted into Na 20 .The molecular
weight

of N20 & K2O is 62 & 94 respectively.

N20/ K2O=0.659

AE as N20 = N20+0.659K20

Usual < or= 0.60%

Some countries limit this content to 0.6% to avoid expansive reaction b/n cement
and aggregate. Alkalis have an interesting behavior because they increase the
liquid phase content at the same increasing the liquid phase viscosity.

10. Alkali sulphate Ratio (ASR)

This ratio expresses the amount of sulphate needed to combine with alkalis to
decrease the circulation phenomena consequences. Unfortunately it is not a molar
or Stoichiometric ratio.

ASR = S03 Usual 0.6<ASR< 1.4

Na20+0.5k20

11. Sulphate Modulus (Mso3)

This formula gives the molar ratio between the sulphate and the other volatile
components of clinker. When this proportion is unbalanced, serious troubles during
kiln operation may arise, such as preheater blocking & ring formation between the
inlet chamber and the transition zone

Chlorine, the most volatile of the four components, is taken into account because it
first combines with Na+ & k+.

The best range to minimise blocking problems is 0.83-1.00

MSO3 = (SO3/80)

(K2O/94+Na2O/62+2*Cl/35.5)

12. Bogue’s potential composition

Being potential, the clinker composition thus calculated does not correspond to the
actual composition but, it is a good approximation.

It is assumed that part of the total lime is combined with SO 3 as CaSO4

47
 A) AR > 0.64
C3S = 4.071*(CaO- free CaO) -7.6*SiO2-6.718*Al2O3 -1.43*Fe2O3 -2.852*SO3

C2S = 2.867* SiO2-0.754* C3S

C3A = 2.65* Al2O3 – 1.692* Fe2O3

C4AF = 3.04* Fe2O3

B) AR < 0.64
C3S = 4.071*(CaO- free CaO) -7.6*SiO2-4.479*Al2O3 -2.859*Fe2O3 -2.852*SO3

C2S = 2.867* SiO2-0.754* C3S

(C2F + C4AF) = 2.10* Al2O3 + 1.702* Fe2O3

C4AF = 4.766* Al2O3

13. Check the homogeneity of the process

Two easy and quick ways to check how homogeneous the process is

1. Daily variation of + or -0.1 SR and AR or + or -0.1 in the LSF shows you an

homogeneous process with an immediate effect on the coating behavior.

2. When we plot the daily data for each parameters, on the corresponding
graphics, two important information arise: How difficult, normal or easy to
burn is our clinker, and how homogeneous our process is since a big
dispersion of the points will mean a big variation in the process as a whole.

48
 6. Summary

1. RAW MILL CONTROL

Some mills are relatively simple to control, while others need a fairly
sophisticated system to operate satisfactorily .In general the main factors to
be considered are:

a) Feed rate control

b) Air /gas quantity control
c) Air / gas temperature control
d) Product fineness control

 In a raw milling system the, weigh feeders and proportioning devices are
needed to ensure that the feed of correct mix and fed at maximum possible
through put.
 Temperature control is used to ensure correct drying with in air swept mills
by keeping the exit gas temperature constant by varying the heat input to
the mill.
 Gases are often supplied from a preheater system and augmented by a hot
air furnace where necessary. Cold air bleeds are used where the gases are
too hot.
 Product fineness is often controlled by alteration of the setting on static or
mechanical classifier but is obviously proportioned to the overall throughput
rate of the system.
2. RAW MEAL HOMOGINIZATION AND FINENESS

The homogeneity of feed chemical composition and fineness has an important

relationship to fuel consumption, kiln operation, and cement performance. Reacting
to inhomogeneity by burning harder results in increased fuel consumption, possible
kiln buildups due to increased alkali and sulfates, clinker with low porosity, large
alite, poor nodulization, and variation in alkali sulfate content. And also may result
in cement with increased water demand, decreased early strength, and
abnormalities in setting behavior. On the other hand, reacting to variations in feed

49
by improving its homogeneity will avoid these difficulties and produce more uniform
clinker, and therefore cement with more uniform performance characteristics.

Suggestions to improve homogenization include:

 When stacking raw materials, stack more reclaimed layers to promote

blending efficiency. The higher the number of layers, the better the
homogenization.
 In large, continuously operating raw meal silos, keep the silos full to maintain
effective blending.

3. PROCESS VARIATION AND STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

Process variation

Natural Unnatural

Common Assignable
causes causes

Equipment Wear
Equipment
improper
methods
adjustment
materials people
inconsistent
environment
method
temporary
personnel
improper material
Can be Can not be
eliminated eliminated

Statistical
process control

50
 Materials People

People
Fatigue /illness

Environment
Content of CaCO3 Unsupervised
on pure lime
stone &
overburden Lack of training
Rotation of
Humidity shifts
(rainy Poor Grind
ability Unaware
condition)
Homogeneity
Changes

Supplies/material Attitude/motivation
Working
Inconsistent
Condition (High
variation of
CaCO3 %)
Poor Blending
mechanism Break down of
blending machinery
on pure lime
stone &
overburden
Poor Sampling
Poor inspection

Or check

Worn or deterioration
Poor Laboratory equipment (e.g.
Analysis Laboratory grinding
machine)
Methods Machinerie

51
 4. BURNABILITY IMPROVEMENT

Changes for improvement of Burnability (=Reduction of free CaO

Proposed Resulting Potential Comments

Change advantage problems Good ideas

Reduce - Slightly more - Less C3S- lower - Often easy to do, by adding less
LSF liquid phase potential Limestone
- Less dust strength - If LSF larger than app. 100, it may be
impossible to burn to low free CaO. It is
better to decrease LSF to achieve low
CaO in clinker, as it is a saste to have
excess calcite through the kiln being
calcined heated and cooled.
- Microscopy of clinker can reveal if it is
possible to burn the clinker to a lower
free CaO.
- The primary reason for having too high
LSF is incorrect chemical analyses of
the raw mix.
- Unsatisfactory homogenization of the
raw materials will give fluctuations in
LSF and affect the burnability in
unforeseeable ways making it very
difficult for the operator to operate the
kiln.
Reduce Ms - More liquid - Big clinker balls - Should always be considered if dust is
- Better when too low a problem
granulometry Ms - Significant effect on burnability, but
less dust - Slightly lower small effect on strength
- Improved C3S in clinker - Ms> 2,5: consider a decrease
cooler - Ms < 2,3: try to increase
efficiency - A decrease in Ms will often result in a
decrease in quarts and silicates along
with having a positive effect on the
burnability.
Reduce Ma - Liquid starts at - Slightly lower - Easy to do if iron ore is available
lower C3S - Minor effect on burnability
temperature - Longer time in kiln for good
- Better nodulisation
granulometry

52
Reduce - Easier for - Calcite is a soft - Often the first and easiest choice, if the
coarse calcite material and mill has extra capacity
calcite particles to will be affected - Relatively small effect on burnability
react by finer grinding - Over- burning is often a problem
particles
- Finer grinding because big free CaO particles from
will require large calcite particles are impossible to
more energy in burn away. If the operator does not
the mill know this, the only option seems to be
- Possible mill to burn harder- possibly resulting in
capacity dusty clinker
problems (lower - No effect on cement quality
production) - Finer grinding will have minor effect on
coarse silicates and quarts
- Will normally improve clinker grind
ability
Reduce - Easier to avoid - May require - Good effect on burnability
coarse big C2S separate - Other components should be
quarts clusters grinding of sand examined. Different stand may have
- Will normally component i.e. identical chemistry but different sizes
particles
improve more energy of quartz
clinker grind and investment
ability
Burn - The - Short brick life - If the free CaO can be kept at a
Harder production due to high reasonable value, the cement strength
may be temperature will be OK
changed with - More NOx - Harder burning will increase crystal
acceptable emission sizes and result in clinker harder to
free CaO - More energy is grind resulting in more energy needed
needed in the cement mill.
- The use of petcoke as fuel may be
ruled out due to increased sulphur
evaporation

OR add
CaF2 OR
Read
about
mineralize
d clinker

53
 7. Conclussion

PRODUCTIVITY

Productivity=Actual production/Maximum production

Acceptable approximate level > 0.8

Productivity is a measure of the following:

 System performance
 System efficiency
 Resource utilization
 The relationship between real output and inputs.

Productivity is measured as:

 The ratio of output to input.

 The ratio between the amount produced and the amount of any resources
used in the production.
 Output per unit of input (resources)

Waste

Input Output

Productivity = Output / Input

54
The cement industry is the continuous process manufacturing where the traditional
mass production system is adopted in order to produce, accumulate, and move
thousands tons of materials between the work areas.

Nowadays the challenge is to change the cement industry from traditional mass
production into more effective production system aiming to increase the
productivity, overall performance, and capacity utilization to meet high marker
demand. The cement industry is forced to reduce the production costs and delay
times in order to take advantages in the global competition environments.

Within the cement production line, Process optimation (an effective tool for cost
reduction) is an initiative to improve the plant performance.

The objectives for Process optimization include:

 Optimization of all unit operations.

 Lowering the specific energy consumption.
 Diagnostic studies of problems in raw materials, electrical, instrumentation,
mechanical and process engineering sections and trouble shooting.
 Quality assurance with optimized utilization of resources.
 Measures for improvement in environment.
 Lowering the production cost.

EXPECTED BENEFITS

· Optimum capacity utilisation of available facilities in all unit operations.

· Saving in specific fuel consumption.
· Saving in specific electrical energy consumption.
· Consistency in plant operation and hence improved run factor.
· Improved product quality.
· Reduction in maintenance cost.
· Assessment of potential capacity of plant and suggestions for achieving the same.

In current scenario of limited demand, lower cost realisation and increasing

competition in cement industry, lowering the production cost has become the need
of the hour for survival. An effective measure to reduce the production cost is by
optimisation of the operational practices.

55