Lecture #1

Fundamentals of batteries

T Prem Kumar
[email protected]
Energy storage: the weakest link
Many methods to generate electricity
Many many more methods to use energy
Weakest link to the future: energy storage

Future? NO
Thought for the day
We have a responsibility
to pass on to the next generation
a more livable world.
Electrochemical cells

Galvanic (voltaic) cells Electrolytic cells

Rely on spontaneous Perform chemical reactions
processes to generate a through application of a
potential capable of potential
performing work

Energy output Energy input

Where do we begin?
Oxidation and Reduction

Historically, oxidation is reaction with oxygen.

2 Zn + O2 → 2 ZnO
And, reduction is removal of oxygen
2HgO → 2 Hg + O2

Zn → Zn2+ + 2 e– (loss of electrons: oxidation)

O2 + 4 e – → 2 O2– (gain of electrons: reduction)

Oxidation and reduction
Loss of electrons by one substance (oxidation)
is accompanied by
simultaneous gain of electrons by another substance (reduction).

These reactions are thus commonly called redox reactions.

An oxidizing agent oxidizes another substance. In turn, it gets reduced.

A reducing agent reduces another substance. In turn, it gets oxidized.

Memory Aid

Oxidation Is Loss OIL

Reduction Is Gain RIG
Galvanic cell
Voltaic cell: a memory aid

(–) Zn/ZnSO4//CuSO4/Cu (+)

Left Right
Anode Cathode
Oxidation Reduction
Negative Positive

Electrons flow from left to right.

 Chemical and electrochemical reactions

Fe3+ + Cu+ = Fe2+ + Cu2+

Chemical Reaction Electrochemical Reaction

• Reacting species must come into • Reacting species are separated by a
contact separator
• Electron transfer between ions • Electron transfer between electrodes
• Path traveled by electrons is short • Path traveled is long
• Electron transfer in any direction • Electron transfer unidirectional
• Energy effect manifests as heat • Energy effect manifests as current flow

Electrochemical reactions are chemical reactions in which

the transferred electrons are cleverly routed through an external circuit.
The Periodic Table as a guide
E0 values
Li+/Li : – 3.05 V
F2/F– : + 2.87 V
Cell voltage for the
Li-F2 couple : 5.92 V

~100 elements: ~5,000 galvanic couples!

Primary, secondary & rechargeable batteries

Primary battery: delivers power upon assembly,

but cannot be recharged.

Secondary battery: Must be electrically charged before

it can deliver power.
Secondary batteries are also called storage batteries / accumulators.
(They store the energy that is fed into them.)

Rechargeable battery: delivers power upon assembly,

but can be recharged.
All secondary batteries are rechargeable batteries;
but all rechargeable batteries are not secondary batteries.

Mechanically rechargeable: A rechargeable battery in which

one electrode is replaced upon consumption.
Reserve, active & half cells

Reserve battery: A primary cell in which the electrolyte is stored in a

separate sealed compartment to avoid corrosion and self-discharge.
Operation is done by electrolyte release/addition;
in thermal batteries operation is done by melting a solidified electrolyte.
The cell is used to provide very high power for short periods.

Active battery: A cell containing all components in a charged state

ready for discharge (as distinct from a reserved cell).

Half cell: An electrode (either the anode or cathode) immersed in a

suitable electrolyte.
Flooded, starved, dry & hermetically sealed batteries

Flooded battery: The electrolyte in this battery covers the plates

(excess electrolyte).
It usually has open ports to release gas and to replace the water (lost by
electrolysis).

Starved battery: Here, a major quantity of the electrolyte is

immobilized in the separator and plates.
This enables gases to reach electrode surfaces during charging and
facilitate gas recombination.

Dry battery: A cell with immobilized electrolyte.

The term is often used to describe the Leclanche cell.

Hermetically sealed battery: A starved cell designed to prevent

loss of electrolyte or gas.
The gas is recombined within the cell during operation.
Relationships: the faraday

 The unit faraday (F) is the charge on one mole of electrons.

 Electronic charge: 1.6 x 10–19 C

 Avogadro number: 6.022 x 1023
 Faraday = 1.6 x 10–19 C x 6.022 x 1023
= 96497 C

 In battery parlance, charge is expressed in units of ampere-hour.

 F = 96487 C = 96487 A.s
= 96487 A.s x (1 h /3600 s)
= 26.8 Ah
 Relationships: energy and charge

 The cell in open circuit generates an electromotive force (emf) or

potential or voltage.
This is the potential to perform work.

 Energy is charge moving under an applied voltage:

1J = 1C 1V
Relationships: free energy and cell voltage

G = −nFE
Under standard conditions (1 M, 1 atm, 25°C)

G = −nFE
Standard (reduction) potentials

 Cell voltage is the sum of the potentials for the two half
reactions at each electrode
Ecell = Eanodic rxn + Ecathodic rxn

 It is not possible to determine either from the cell voltage—

we must know one to get the other.

 Enter the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)

 All potentials are referenced to the SHE (= 0 V)

Ecell = Eanode (ox) + Ecathode (red) IS THE SAME AS: Ecell = Ecathode (std) – Eanode (std)
 Cell potential, electrical work & free energy

 emf = potential difference (V) = work (J) / charge (C)

 In a galvanic cell, this work is done by the system.

 Work flowing out of the system is indicated by a negative sign.
 When a cell does work, the cell potential is positive; work is done by
the system. Thus, potential and work have opposite signs.

 E = –w (work) / q (charge), i.e., –w = q.E

 q = n.F, where n is no. electrons in the reaction and F is the charge in
coulombs per mole of electrons.
 At constant P and T, the maximum work = change in free energy.
 –wmax = ΔG
 Thus, wmax = –q.Emax = ΔG.
 Because q = n.F, ΔG = –n.F.E
The Nernst equation
 Working under non-standard conditions


G = G + RT ln Q

− nFE = −nFE + RT ln Q

E = E − RT ln Q
nF

E = E − 0.0592 log Q
n
BATTERY LINGO
 Charge
• CHARGE
The process of storing electrical energy in a rechargeable battery by
forcing current to flow through the battery in a direction opposite
its discharge mode.
This restores discharged material to its charged state.

• OVERCHARGE
The forcing current through a cell after all active materials have
been converted to the charged state.
 Discharge …
• DISCHARGE: Process of obtaining electrical power from a
battery by connecting a load across its terminals

• SELF-DISCHARGE: Loss of useful capacity of a battery on

storage due to internal chemical reactions

• SERVICE LIFE: Period of useful life of a battery before a

predetermined end-point voltage is reached

• SHELF LIFE: Duration of storage under specified conditions at

the end of which a battery still retains the ability to give a specified
performance
Charging curve and OCV
Level OCV Curve
rises
same rate Full charge voltage

Voltage
Level
rises
same rate End of discharge voltage

Capacitor 0% 100%
Fullness

Level rises
slower
OCV Curve
Level rises
Full charge voltage
faster
Voltage

End of discharge voltage

Battery 0% 100%
Fullness
Capacity
• CAPACITY: Charge in ampere-hours (Ah) stored in a cell

C=Axt

It is a measure of charge in a battery,

just like the amount of water in a glass.
 Capacity
– Rated capacity: The nominal or name-plate capacity
(manufacturer-specified) under specific conditions of temperature,
current and end voltage.

– Standard capacity: The capacity as measured under a standardized

charge-discharge cycle.

– Theoretical capacity: The number of ampere-hour equivalents of

stored chemical mass.

– Measured capacity: The capacity as measured under conditions

other than standard conditions.
Nominal & usable capacities

10 kWh lead-acid battery (name-plate)

50% DOD = usable capacity: 5 kWh

10 kWh lithium-ion battery (name-plate)

75% DOD = useable capacity: 7.5 kWh
 DOD & SOC
• DEPTH OF DISCHARGE
Ah removed on discharge expressed as a percentage of the rated capacity.
The rated capacity is always used to calculate DOD and charge rates.

• STATE OF CHARGE
Ah capacity retained after a certain drain from a fully charged battery
(expressed as a percentage of the rated capacity).

DOD = 1 − SOC
 SOC of a car battery (Pb-acid)
Battery voltage
12.75 V 100%
12.48 V 75%
12.12 V 50%
12.00 V 25%

Sp.gr. of electrolyte (75˚F/24˚C)

1.265 100%
1.239 75%
1.200 50%
1.170 25%
1.110 0%
 Energy & Power
• SPECIFIC ENERGY (Wh/kg)
[Cmeas x Vavg] / weight of cell
Sp. energy = gravimetric energy density
= energy stored per unit mass

• ENERGY DENSITY (Wh/l)

[Cmeas x Vavg] / volume of cell
Energy density = volumetric energy density
= energy stored per unit volume

Sp. power (W/kg) = power the battery can deliver per kg

Power density (W/l) = power the battery can deliver per liter
Power = ability to deliver current
High power Low power

Power tool draws Kitchen clock runs

up to 50 amperes on a few milliamps
Power = ability to deliver current

W = J/s
(J = C.V)
= C.V/s
(C = A.s)
= A.s.V/s
= A.V
 Difference between capacity and SOC
Capacity and SoC determine the runtime but the siblings are not related.

Rated capacity (Ah)

includes the empty,
stored energy and
SoC includes
inactive part
stored energy and
inactive part

Available capacity
represents the actual playfield
 C rate Time

C and E rates 5C
2C
12 min
30 min
1C 1 h (1 h rate)
0.5C 2 h (2 h rate)
0.2C 5 h (5 h rate)
0.1C 10 h (10 h rate)
0.05C 20 h

Battery charge/discharge current is often expressed as a C-rate.

C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is charged/discharged
relative to its maximum capacity.
1C rate means that the full capacity is discharged in 1 hour.
For a 100 Ah battery, 1C rate means a discharge current of 100 A.
A 5C rate for this battery would be 500 A (1/5th hour), and
a C/2 rate would be 50 A (two hours).
Similarly, an E-rate describes the discharge power.
A 1E rate is the discharge power to discharge the entire battery in 1 hour.
 C rate …
Charge type Charge rate Recharge time
Ultra quick (very fast) Over C <1h
Fast C <2h
Quick C/3 4–5 h
Standard C/10 16–20 h
Minimum C/20 36–48 h
Trickle C/50 Used to maintain charge
on a fully charged battery
 Charge voltage/current …
Charge voltage
The voltage up to which a battery is charged for reaching full capacity.

General charging scheme:

(i) CC charging until the battery voltage reaches the charge voltage;
(ii) CV charging, till the charge current tapers to small values.

Float voltage
The voltage at which a battery is maintained after charging to 100% SOC
—to maintain that capacity by compensating for self-discharge.

Charge current
The current at which a battery is initially charged (to ~70% SOC) under CC
charging before transitioning to CV mode.
The discharge curve

Time
Ragone plot (Ra-GO-nee)
A plot of specific energy vs. specific power.
Used to compare performances of different energy-storing devices.

Supercaps

Batteries
Energy storage capacity

Non-rechargeables hold more energy than rechargeables

Practical battery systems
 Agastya battery: the first?
A Sanskrit verse written by Maharishi Agastya in Agastya Samhita (7000 years ago!)
संस्था प्ये मन्ृ मये पत्रे "तम्रपात्र्न" सुसांकरतम
च्छाड्येत शिखी ग्रिवेनड्रारशिही कस्थापन्सुशिही
दस्तलोष्तो ननधताव्याहा पारडच्छाददतस्ताटाहा
संयोगात जयते तेजो शमत्रावरून संद्नयटम mitra = cathode
अणेन जलिगोस्ती प्रणोदनेिू वायष ू ू varuna = anode
एवं ितना कंु िना संयोगहा काययक्ृृटसमत ृ ाहा pranavayu = oxygen
संस्था प्ये (Take) मन्ृ मये (soil) पत्रे (patra= container) "तम्रपात्र्न" (cleaned copper plate)
udanavayu = hydrogen
सुसांकरतम च्छाड्येत (covered with) शिखी (Morchud = copper sulphate) ग्रिवेनड्रारशिही कस्थाप ghritachi = earthen ceramic
beaker
Sansthapya Mrinmaya Patre Tamrapatram Susanskritam shata kumbh = 100 cells in series
Chhadyechhikhigriven Chardrarbhih Kashthpamsubhih to convert chemical energy to
Dastaloshto Nidhatavyah Pardachhaditastah electrical energy
Sanyogajjayte Tejo Mitravarunsangyitam
apsara = water tight vessel
Anen Jalbhangosti Prano Daneshu Vayushu
Evam Shatanam Kumbhanamsanyogkaryakritsmrita

A clean copper plate is put in an earthenware vessel. It is covered first by copper sulfate and
then moist sawdust. After that put a mercury-amalgamated-zinc sheet on top of an energy known
by the twin name of Mitra-Varuna. Water will be split by this current into Pranavayu and
Udanavayu. A chain of one hundred jars is used to give a very strong electricity.

http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.in/2012/07/volta-galvani-electrical-battery-and.html
A.K. Shukla and T. Prem Kumar, Ind. J. Hist. Sci. 49 (2014) 424.
 Baghdad batteries
(ca. 2000 years ago)

container: terracotta jar

cathode: copper cylinder
anode: iron rod
electrolyte: vinegar
separator: non-conducting stopper
debated uses: electroplating;
experiencing god!

Sumerian batteries (2500 BC)

 Evolution
Evolution of of batteries:
batteries
from Voltaic pile to lithium and beyond

Li-ion
polymer
Li-ion 2000
Zebra Sony
(Cu/Zn) Pb-acid 1901 Li-S
Li-
Na/S polymer 1991
1801 1859 Ni-Fe Li-air
Ni-Cd 1979 Redox-flow
Na-ion

1866 1930 1970 1975 Redox organic

1839
Leclanche Ni-Zn Mg or Ca
Fuel Ni-H2 Ni-MH
cells Sony New
Nexelion Materials
Redox-flow (2005)
 That is progress!
Mobile telephony today in 1920

Electric car today and ca. 1900

 Largest battery
129 MWh lithium-ion battery installation (TESLA)

640 Powerpacks – South Australia – 30,000 homes

 And the smallest?

Nanowire-batteries
50 microns tall
(~diameter of a human hair).
(ACS Nano Letters).

Rice University’s nanowire lithium-ion battery.

It is as small as such a device can possibly get.
Anode: nickel/tin.
Cathode: polyaniline; it also acts as a supercapacitor.
Single nanowire structure with ultra-thin separation.
For a bird’s eye view of the history of batteries
and of electrochemistry

A.K. Shukla and T. Prem Kumar,

ECS Interface (Fall 2008) 31–39.
Electrolyte:
35% H2SO4
Lead-acid batteries

2.07 V
30–50 Wh/kg
75–300 W/kg
300–1000 cycles
 Pb-acid: the scenario

Mature technology
Backed by 150 years of development
Less than $150/kWh (unrivalled in terms of cost-effectiveness)

Commands more than half of a whopping $70 billion world battery market

India’s share: $4 billion

automotive: $2 billion; industrial: $2 billion

Commonly used for

starting-lighting-ignition
deep cycling and
stand-by applications
 Lead-acid battery
Energy density: 30–50 Wh/kg
Power: 10C
Efficiency: 70–80%
Cycle life: 300–500 full cycles for standard PbA
1000–1500 for advanced PbA

Low cycle life

Low energy density
Lead toxicity
Sulfation: crystallization of PbSO4 if left in discharged state

Lowest capital cost

Mature technology
Service life: 9–15 years
Abundant materials
Efficient recycling: up to 99%
Safe (except end-of-charge electrolysis)
Nickel-cadmium batteries
Workhorse of yesteryears

No longer manufactured
for civilian use due to
toxicity of cadmium.

1.2 V
45–80 Wh/kg
60–90 Wh/l
1000+ cycles
 Nickel–cadmium batteries
Discharge reactions

Positive electrode
NiOOH + H2O + e – → Ni(OH)2 + OH–

Negative electrode
Cd + 2 OH– → Cd(OH)2 + 2 e–

Net reaction
Cd + 2 NiOOH + 2 H2O → 2 Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2
 Nickel–cadmium batteries
Overcharge

Overcharge (normal positive-limited cell)

Ni electrode: 4 OH– → 2 H2O + O2 + 4 e–
Cd electrode: Cd(OH)2 + 2 e– → Cd + 2 OH–
O2 + 2 H2O + 2 Cd → 2 Cd(OH)2 [recombination]

Hermetic sealing possible

Memory effect
Lazy battery effect / voltage depression
A phenomenon where the discharge voltage for a given load is lower than
it should be, giving the appearance of a lowered capacity.
Batteries subjected to a repeated discharge/charge cycles tend to deliver
capacities lower than the rated capacity.

Memory is attributed to changes in the cadmium electrode.

Upon charging, Cd(OH)2 gets converted to Cd.
Cd is deposited as microcrystalline particles.
Since grain boundaries are high-energy regions, the crystals tend to
coalesce into large crystals over time (Ostwald ripening).
Also, Cd alloys with the Ni in sintered plates (Hume-Rothery phases).
These make it hard to dissolve Cd during high current discharge, and
leads to high internal resistance and voltage depression.
Memory effect …
To avoid memory effect: avoid forming large Cd crystals.

Avoid slow charging: slow charge—slow growth—large crystals

Avoid high temperatures: nucleation & growth of crystals proceed
exponentially with temp.

By a proper execution of a discharge/charge cycle, one can destroy the

large crystals of Cd and replace them with a microcrystalline form.

Overcharge: changes the crystal structure of the Ni(OH)2 from the β-form
to the γ-form. The electrochemical potential of the γ-form is 40–50 mV
less than that of the β-form. This results in a lower discharge voltage.
In a six-cell (7.2 V) pack, this means a loss of 300 mV.

The trick? Do not overcharge / trickle charge.

 Memory effect …
New Ni-Cd cell
Hexagonal Cd(OH)2 crystals: ~1 micron across

Cells left for months after charge

Crystals of Cd: 50–100 microns across

Restored cell
After a reconditioning charge/discharge:
Cd crystals: 3–5 microns

T. Prem Kumar, in: The Hindu Speaks on Scientific Facts, Vol. II, Kasturi & Sons, Chennai (2004) p. 240.
Ni-MH batteries

1.2 V
60–120 Wh/kg
120–300 Wh/l
2000 (80%DOD)
100,000 (5%DOD)
Self-disch: 30%/month
 Ni-MH batteries
• Negative electrode: metal hydride
AB2 (A = Ti, V; B = Zr, Ni & modified with Cr, Co, Fe, Mn)
AB5 (A = La, Ce, Nd, Pr; B = Ni, Co, Mn, Al)

• Positive electrode: NiOOH

• Electrolyte: KOH

India has huge RE reserves along its southern coastline.

India should invest in Ni-MH batteries!
 NiOOH + LaNi5H6
H+ + e-
Ni-MH batteries
Ni(OH)2 LaNi5+
6H+ + 6e-

• Discharge

• Positive: NiOOH + H2O + e- Ni(OH)2 + OH-

Through electrolyte Through loa

•Negative: MH + OH- M + H2O + e-

•Overall NiOOH + MH Ni(OH)2 + M

• The electrolyte is not affected as it does not participate in the reaction.

 Ni-Fe: the Edison battery

Thomas Alva Edison with

a 1913 Detroit Electric car
powered by his Ni-Fe
battery

Anode: Fe + 2OH– → Fe(OH)2 + 2e– [Fe(OH)2 + OH– → FeOOH + e–]

Cathode: NiOOH + H2O + e – → Ni(OH)2 + OH–
Overall: Fe + 2NiOOH + 2H2O → 2Ni(OH)2 + Fe(OH)2
The journey continues …
Very heavy to very light batteries

~170 primary batteries

~30 secondary/rechargeable batteries Wearable

Transparent
Paper-thin Bendable

pin-type Stretchable
Evolution of battery operating principles
How to choose a battery?
How to choose a battery?
There is no such thing as a perfect battery (one that works for every application).
For each application there are important metrics (and trade-offs).

Example: a power drill

High power: low cell internal resistance (increased electrode surface area
→ increase in inactive components → trade-off: energy density)

Lead-acid battery
Good for automotive starting: high rate capability
Unsuitable for portable electronics: lead toxicity, battery weight → low
energy

Zinc-carbon dry cell vs. alkaline Zn-MnO2 dry cell

So selection boils down to making the right trade-offs.

Battery selection metrics

Easy decisions
Rechargeability (primary/secondary)
Availability
Size and shape
Cost

Not-so-easy decisions
Voltage
Cycle life
Energy & power density
Shelf life, service life
Temperature range
Safety
 Choosing a battery: energy and power

The runtime of a battery is dictated by its capacity (mAh / Ah) → discharge current
Energy content (Wh) : battery capacity (Ah) x voltage (V)

Compare: Ni–MH battery (1.2 V) and a LiB (3.6 V) of the same capacity
LiB has higher energy because of its higher voltage.

OCV is often used in energy calculations (battery voltage with no load).

Theoretical capacity (based on active materials) > practical capacities (inactive materials
and kinetic limitations).

Manufacturers specify capacity at a given discharge rate, temperature and cut-off voltage.
A battery rated at 10 Ah for a 100-hour discharge cannot deliver 10 A for 1 hour.

Power density is dependent on battery construction. It is rarely listed.

High power batteries have low energy densities.

Choosing a battery: voltage
Many electronic components operate at a minimum voltage of 3 V.
Therefore, one LiB (3.6 V) can replace three Ni–MH batteries (1.2 V).

Also, some chemistries give a sloping discharge curve (LiB with LiCoO2)
while others give a flat discharge curve (LiB with LiFePO4).
This behaviour determines the cut-off voltage.
Choosing a battery: operational temperature

All batteries do not work at all temperatures.

A Zn–MnO2 cell does not work below 0°C.

But an Mg–MnO2 cell can work at –30°C (Leh, Kargil).

Lithium primary cells: –40°C (but significant drop in performance)

LiBs: can be charged at maximum rate only in the 20–45°C range.
Outside this temperature range: lower currents/voltages are used → longer charging
times.
Below 10°C trickle charging is advised to prevent lithium dendritic plating, which leads
to risk of thermal runaway.

Apart from kinetics, conductivity of the electrolytes

dictate performance.
Aqueous batteries perform much better than
non-aqueous batteries.
Choosing a battery: shelf-life

Shelf-life refers to how long a battery will sit in a storeroom or on a shelf before use.

Primary batteries have much longer shelf lives than secondary batteries.

Shelf-life is generally more important for primary batteries because secondary batteries
can be recharged.

Service life depends on battery chemistry and use/abuse.

 Choosing a battery:
chemistry; size & shape; regulations
Chemistry
Many of the properties listed above are dictated by cell chemistry.

Physical size and shape

Batteries are typically available in the following standard formats:
button/coin cells
cylindrical cells
prismatic cells
pouch cells

Transportation, disposal regulations

Transportation of lithium-based batteries is regulated.
Disposal of battery chemistries such as lead-acid and Ni–Cd is also regulated.

Metal conservation
Why e-mobility today?

Oil price
& energy
Climate change Green image depletion
(good for business)

73
CO2 taxes & regulations Economic crisis
(ZEV regulations) (job creation)
 EV requirements and battery options
Battery Energy Battery Speed Range per
Operation mode capacity density weight (km/h) charge (km)
(kWh) (Wh/kg) (kg)
Hybrid <3 40–50 60 100+ 15
(Ni-MH) (Ni-MH)

Plug-in 6–18 90–100 60–200 100+ 10–60

hybrid (Li-ion) (Li-ion)

Full EV 25–35 100 250–300 100+ 100–150

(Li-ion) (Li-ion) [depends on
driving style,
AC, etc.

5 kWh = 25 km; 40-50 kg.

Battery energy densities
Battery type and vehicle range
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss

Ss
EV battery weight and cost

$250/kWhname-plate**

$5,000 (Rs 3.5L) $16,500 (Rs 11.5L)

Battery targets for 500 km BEVs

<$ 10000 battery cost <150 $/kWhname-plate

 National Mission on Electric Mobility
GoI’s NMEM 2020*
6–7 million electric vehicles

*National Mission on Electric Mobility

Rs 13,000–14,000 crore in 5–6 years

Reduce CO2 emissions by 1.3–1.5%

But a bulk of the money on the EV goes to the battery!

Need to strengthen expertise in battery science & manufacture.

Batteries and elegant science

To offset their perceived lack of dazzle compared to the

latest generation of music (MP3) players, for example,
batteries are well hidden within the device
and silently provide power based on the most elegant
scientific principles.

(Daniel Scherson, Interface, Winter 2005)

Thank you!
Thank you for your attention