Earthquake - Definition: An earthquake is a sudden shaking or trembling of the

Earth's surface caused by the movement of tectonic plates or volcanic activity

thereby releasing energy that travel in all directions. The vibrations called seismic
waves are generated from earthquakes that travel through the Earth and are
recorded on instruments called seismographs.

The location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called the
focus hypocenter, and the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is
called the epicenter.

India is located in a seismically active region, and the country is prone to

earthquakes with over 59 percent of India’s land area under threat of moderate to
severe seismic hazards.

Measurement of Earthquakes:
The energy from an earthquake travels through Earth in vibrations called seismic
waves.
Scientists can measure these seismic waves on instruments called seismometers.
The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of
the shock. The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. The magnitude
relates to the energy released during the quake. The magnitude is expressed in
absolute numbers, 0-10. The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an Italian
seismologist. The range of intensity scale is from 1-12.

Types of Earthquake:
1. Fault Zones: Earthquakes are caused due to release of energy. The release of
energy occurs along a fault. A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks. Rocks
 along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. As the overlying rock strata
press them, the friction locks them together. However, their tendency to move
apart at some point of time overcomes the friction. As a result, the blocks get
deformed and eventually, they slide past one another abruptly. This causes
earthquake in the form of release of energy, and the energy waves travel in all
directions.

2. Tectonic Earthquakes: The most common ones are the tectonic

earthquakes. The Earth is made of four basic layers (generally three): a solid
crust, a hot, nearly solid mantle, a liquid outer core and a solid inner core.

Tectonic plates (Lithospheric plates) are constantly shifting as they drift

around on the viscous, or slowly flowing, mantle layer below.
This non-stop movement causes stress on Earth’s crust. When the stresses get
too large, it leads to cracks called faults.
When tectonic plates move, it also causes movements at the faults. Thus, the
slipping of land along the fault line along convergent, divergent and transform
boundaries cause earthquakes.
 3. Volcanic Earthquake: Earthquakes produced by stress changes in solid
rock due to the injection or withdrawal of magma (molten rock) are called
volcano earthquakes. These earthquakes can cause land to subside and can
produce large ground cracks. Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don't indicate that
the volcano will be erupting but can occur at any time.

4. Human Induced Earthquakes or Anthropogenic:

i) In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of underground
mines collapse causing minor tremors. These are called collapse
earthquakes.
ii) Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear
devices. Such tremors are called explosion earthquakes.
iii) The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred
to as reservoir induced earthquakes.

Impacts of Earthquake
The types of impacts vary greatly depending on where the earthquake occurs -
whether it is urban or rural, thickly or sparsely inhabited, highly developed or
underdeveloped, and the infrastructure's ability to withstand shaking. The following
are a few impacts of earthquakes:
 1. Structural damage: Earthquakes can cause buildings and other structures to
collapse. More than 90% of the casualties in past earthquakes in India have
occurred due to the collapse of houses and structures.
2. Surface Rupture & Ground Displacement: The primary earthquake hazard is
surface rupture. It can result from vertical or horizontal displacement on either side of
a ruptured fault. Ground displacement, which can occur over broad areas, can cause
significant damage to structures, roads, trains, and pipelines.
3. Tsunamis: Earthquakes that occur beneath the water have the potential to cause
tsunamis. The most likely scenario for a massive tsunami is a large (M7 or greater)
subduction-related earthquake.
4. Liquefaction: Liquefaction of soil occurs when loosely packed, water-logged
sediments at or near the ground surface lose strength due to intense ground shaking.
The soil temporarily behaves like a viscous liquid. Liquefaction beneath houses and
other structures can cause significant damage during earthquakes.
5. Fires: Fires are often linked to earthquakes because fuel pipes rupture and electrical
wires are destroyed when the ground shakes.
6. Livelihood disruption: Earthquakes can cause economic disruption, as businesses
and industries are forced to close, and people are unable to work.

Distribution of Earthquakes
Earthquakes can strike any location at any time, but history shows they occur in the
same general patterns year after year, principally in three large zones of the earth:

1. Circum-Pacific seismic belt: The world’s greatest earthquake belt is

found along the rim of the Pacific Ocean, where about 81 per cent of our
planet’s largest earthquakes occur. It is also known as “Ring of Fire” .
2. Alpide earthquake belt: It extends from Java to Sumatra through the
Himalayas, the Mediterranean, and out into the Atlantic. This belt accounts
for about 17 percent of the world’s largest earthquakes including some of
the most destructive.
3. Submerged mid-Atlantic Ridge: The ridge marks where two tectonic
plates are spreading apart (a divergent plate boundary).
Earthquake Vulnerability and Risk in India

India lies in the Alpine earthquake belt which is one of the most destructive belt
of earthquakes.

Earthquake Zones in India The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has divided India
into four seismic zones based on the level of seismic hazard. Approximately 11% of
the country is in zone V, 18% in zone IV, 30% in zone III, and the rest in zone II.

Seismic Zones of India:

1. Zone V - It covers the areas liable to seismic intensity IX and above on the
MSK (1964) Intensity Scale. This is the most severe seismic zone and is
referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. It includes Parts of Jammu
and Kashmir (Kashmir valley), the western part of Himachal Pradesh, the
Eastern part of Uttarakhand, the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, part of Northern
Bihar, all northeastern states of India and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
2. Zone IV - MSK VIII areas are referred to as the High Damage Risk Zone. It
includes remaining parts of Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, remaining part of
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, Some parts of Haryana, Parts of Punjab,
Delhi, Sikkim, northern part of Uttar Pradesh, small portions of Bihar and West
Bengal, parts of Gujarat and small portions of Maharashtra near the west coast
and small part of western Rajasthan.
3. Zone III - The associated intensity of this zone is MSK VII and is termed as a
Moderate damage risk zone. It includes Kerala, Goa, Lakshadweep islands,
 some parts of Uttar Pradesh and Haryana, remaining parts of Gujarat and
Punjab, some parts of West Bengal, part of western Rajasthan, part of Madhya
Pradesh, the remaining part of Bihar, northern parts of Jharkhand and
Chhattisgarh, parts of Maharashtra, parts of Odisha, parts of Andhra Pradesh
and Telangana, Parts of Tamilnadu and Karnataka.
4. Zone II - The probable intensity of this zone is MSK VI or less and referred to
as a Low damage risk zone. It includes the remaining Parts of Rajasthan and
Haryana, the remaining parts of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, the
remaining parts of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, the remaining parts of
Telangana and Karnataka, and the remaining parts of Tamilnadu.

India is prone to earthquakes because:

India’s high earthquake risk and vulnerability are evident from the fact that about 59
percent of India’s land area could face moderate to severe earthquakes which
means it is prone to shaking of MSK (Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale) Intensity
VII and above.
1. Tectonic sub-regions: India has three major tectonic sub-regions -
the Himalayas to the north, the Ganges and other river plains, and
the Peninsula.
 The entire Himalayan Region is considered to be vulnerable to high-intensity
earthquakes of a magnitude exceeding 8.0 on the Richter Scale. This is due to
the ongoing subduction of the Indian Plate under the Eurasian Plate.
Examples: Shillong, 1897 (M 8.7); Kangra, 1905 (M.8.0); Bihar–Nepal, 1934 (M
8.3); and Assam–Tibet, 1950 (M 8.6) are some of the highly intense earthquake
events.
  The tectonic features and characteristics of the Himalayas are prevalent in the
alluvial plains of Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputratoo, as the rocks lying below
the alluvial plains are just extensions of the Himalayan ranges only. Thus this
region is also quite prone to seismic activities.
 The peninsular region is also susceptible to earthquakes due to intra-plate
faults and the internal deformation of the Indian Plate. Examples: The
Bhadrachalam earthquake of April 13, 1969, and the Broach earthquake of
March 23, 1970.
2. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Seafloor displacement and underwater volcanoes
which disturb the equilibrium of earth’s surface.
3. Deccan Plateau: some earth scientists have come up with a theory of the
emergence of a fault line and energy build-up along the fault line of the river Bhima
(Krishna) near Latur and Osmanabad (Maharashtra).
4. Densely populated areas, extensive unscientific constructions and unplanned
urbanization have increased risks.
5. Development and planning actions that are non sustainable in nature.
6. Focus of current building codes (only on life safety as opposed to the higher
performance standard of limiting damages).
Salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes over last 3 decades:
(UPSC 2022)
1. 2001 Bhuj, Gujarat: Due to careless building, a previously undetected fault was
reactivated, resulting in significant loss of life and property.
2. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami: Massive waves were generated by under-water
seismic activity, flooding coastal towns and islands and triggering long-term impacts.
3. 2005 Kashmir: Multiple aftershocks were generated by the 7.6 magnitude
earthquake, which was caused by significant upthrust of the Indian plate against the
Eurasian plate. Communication and infrastructure were both affected.
4. Imphal Earthquake 2016: On January 4, 2016, a magnitude 6.7 earthquake struck
the northeastern Indian state of Manipur, causing widespread damage.
5. Uttarakhand Earthquake 2017: On February 6, 2017, a magnitude 6.7 earthquake
struck the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand.

Mitigation Strategies for Earthquakes:

Earthquake mitigation strategies are actions taken to reduce the risk of damage and loss of
life from earthquakes. These strategies can be implemented at the individual, community,
and government levels.
1. Building codes: Earthquake-resistant building codes can help to ensure that
buildings can withstand the forces of an earthquake.
2. Land use planning: Land use planning can help reduce the risk of earthquake
damage by locating buildings and other structures in areas that are less likely to be
affected by earthquakes.
3. Public awareness: Public education can help to raise awareness of the risks of
earthquakes and teach people how to protect themselves during an earthquake.
4. Disaster preparedness: Disaster preparedness can help communities to be better
prepared for an earthquake by developing emergency plans and stocking up on
supplies.
5. Assessment of high-risk cities: Regular earthquake risk assessment in Indian
cities helps mitigate negative consequences, prepare for future events, and guide
government agencies in prioritising disaster management and response measures.
6. Emergency Response Planning: Planning for emergency response is critical for
minimising the impact of earthquakes. This includes developing evacuation plans,
establishing emergency shelters, and training personnel on how to respond to
earthquakes.
7. Research and Monitoring: Investing in research and monitoring can help improve
our understanding of earthquakes and their causes, and can also help to develop
better methods for predicting and mitigating their impact.

India’s Preparedness: India is one of the most seismically prone countries in the
world, necessitating several earthquake mitigation and preparation measures. The
following are the measures taken by the government in this regard:

1. National Centre for Seismology: It works under the Ministry of Earth

Sciences, monitors earthquakes through 115 observatories, and disseminates
information to state and central disaster authorities for timely mitigation
measures. Earthquake Monitoring & Services, Earthquake Hazard & Risk
Assessment, and Geophysical Observation System are its three departments.
2. National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project: It is a centrally sponsored
plan Scheme by the NDMA, that has been approved in seismic zones IV and V,
 involving the adoption, enforcement, and updation of a Techno-legal Regime,
institutional strengthening, and public awareness.
3. Seismic micro-zonation of cities: Seismic micro-zonation of cities with
populations of 5 lakh or more is done by the National Centre for Seismology.
The aim is to develop strategies for constructing earthquake-resistant
buildings to minimise damage and loss of life, thereby promoting safer urban
planning.
4. Awareness campaign by NDMA: The National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) of India is engaged with conducting regular awareness
campaigns every year through print, electronic and social media from time to
time to sensitise programs on prevention and preparedness for building safety
from earthquakes.
5. Building codes and guidelines: The Indian government is following
guidelines from the Bureau of Indian Standards, Building Materials &
Technology Promotion Council, and Housing and Urban Development
Corporation to design and construct earthquake-resistant structures, aiming to
minimise loss of life and property damage in earthquake-prone areas.
6. Earthquake Disaster Risk Index: The index of cities in Seismic Zones IV
and V is an attempt to estimate the earthquake risk of the country to help
reduce the social and economic consequences of an earthquake.
7. Initiatives by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj: It makes available money
from the Backward Regions Grant Fund (BRGF) to fill important infrastructure
gaps and other development needs. Construction of panchayat buildings,
Anganwadi centres, school buildings, classrooms, roads, bridges, culverts, etc.
has been funded by the ministry under several district plans under the BRGF,
as well as the restructuring of State Institutes for Rural Development (SIRD)
buildings, block resource centres, panchayat training centres, etc.
8. The government launched two Mobile apps for India’s Earthquake
preparedness: ‘India Quake’– The mobile app, which was created by the
National Center for Seismology, disseminates information about earthquakes
in real-time. ‘Sagar Vani’-The smartphone app, designed to assist coastal
communities, promptly notifies the user community of ocean-related
 information and alerts (such as high waves and Tsunami early warnings) for
their protection.

Challenges in India’s Earthquake preparedness:

1. The majority of the earthquake-prone zone is a hilly and mountainous area.

Retrofitting is challenging and expensive in these areas.
2. There is a shortage of skilled labour for designing and constructing
earthquake-resistant structures.
3. Unplanned urbanisation: Poorly built infrastructure and rapid unplanned
growth due to population pressure are rising regularly without concern for
seismic risk, particularly in high regions. For example, In Delhi, Areas along
the banks of the Yamuna and Hindon rivers, where numerous multi-story
buildings are located, reside in the most seismic-prone zones.
4. Building codes are not strictly enforced, and safety requirements are not
closely maintained.
5. Awareness and Preparedness: Awareness about earthquake risks and
preparedness measures among the general public is crucial. The greater
emphasis should be on educating the public about earthquake safety,
evacuation procedures, and the importance of constructing earthquake-
resistant buildings.
6. Lack of Financial Resources: Adequate financial resources are required for
investment in earthquake-resistant infrastructure, retrofitting existing
buildings, conducting research, and enhancing preparedness and response
capabilities. Mobilising sufficient funds and allocating them effectively are
required in earthquake management.

Way forward:
1. The NDMA earthquake recommendations must be followed exactly.
2. Granting tax breaks to those who construct structures with earthquake
resistance.
3. It is necessary to enhance the skills and capabilities of the local community.
4. The empowerment of panchayats and municipal corporations in earthquake
management and the response would be an efficient method to do that.
5. It is necessary to establish a single point of contact for all response divisions
to improve coordination. To minimise the effects of earthquakes, coordination
with other departments like the fire and irrigation departments is necessary.