1. Introduction to Microcomputers and Microprocessors 5.

Binary and Hexadecimal Number Systems

• Key Components of a Computer System: • Binary: Used in computers (base-2), only 0 and 1.

o Central Processing Unit (CPU): Acts as the brain, • Hexadecimal (Hex): Convenient representation of binary, using
coordinating all activities. base-16.

o Memory: Stores program instructions and data. o Conversion techniques between binary, decimal,
and hex are illustrated in the document.
o Input/Output (I/O) Devices: Allow for input and
output of information. 6. Arithmetic Operations in Binary and Hexadecimal

• Microprocessor: • Binary Arithmetic:

o The integrated circuit (IC) chip containing the CPU, o Binary addition and subtraction.
acting as the brain of the computer.
• Hexadecimal Arithmetic:
o Microcomputers are smaller computers using
microprocessors, often as personal computers. o Hexadecimal addition and subtraction methods
with examples.
• Bus System:
7. ASCII Code
o Address Bus: Identifies the memory location or I/O
device for communication. • Represents alphanumeric characters in hexadecimal format
(e.g., ‘A’ as 41H in hex).
o Data Bus: Transfers data between CPU, memory,
and I/O. 8. Important Terminology

o Control Bus: Manages whether the address is for • Bit: Smallest data unit.
memory or an I/O device.
• Byte (8 bits), Word (16 bits), Double-word (32 bits), Quad-word
• Memory Types: (64 bits): Defined data lengths.

o RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory, • Data Sizes:

used for temporary storage.
o 1 KB = 2102^{10}210 bytes, 1 MB = 2202^{20}220
o ROM (Read Only Memory): Non-volatile memory, bytes, 1 GB = 2302^{30}230 bytes, etc.
data retained even when powered off.
1. History of the 80x86 Family of Microprocessors
2. Internal CPU Organization
• Evolution from 8080/8085 to 8086:
• Registers: Temporary storage for data within the CPU.
o Intel introduced the 8086 microprocessor in 1978,
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Executes arithmetic and logic marking a major improvement over the previous
operations. 8080/8085 series.

• Instruction Pointer: Holds the address of the next instruction to o Key differences included a 16-bit data bus, a 20-bit
execute. address bus (1 megabyte of memory), and pipelining
capabilities.
• Instruction Decoder: Interprets the instructions fetched into
the CPU. • Transition from 8086 to 8088:

3. History and Evolution of Computers o The 8088 was similar to the 8086 internally but used
an 8-bit external data bus to reduce costs.
• 1946: First-generation computer, ENIAC, based on vacuum
tubes. o IBM chose the 8088 for its PC, making it highly
successful, especially as an open system with
• 1958-1981: Transition from transistorized computers to Microsoft.
microprocessors like Intel’s 8086 and IBM's PC.
• Other Microprocessors (80286, 80386, and 80486):
• Modern Microprocessors: Intel Pentium series and beyond,
with millions of transistors and increased data/address bus o 80286 (1982): Introduced a 24-bit address bus,
capacities. virtual memory, and protected mode.

4. Evolution of Intel 80x86 Family o 80386 (1985): Featured a 32-bit data bus and
supported up to 4 GB of physical memory.
• Progression from Intel 4004 in 1971 to Intel Itanium in 2001,
each generation increasing in transistor count, clock rate, and
o 80486 (1989): Included a built-in math co-processor
and cache memory for faster processing.
bus width.
2. Architecture of the 8086 Microprocessor
• Pipelining: 1. Introduction to Assembly Language Programming

o In 8085, the CPU could only fetch or execute at a • ADD Instruction:

time. The 8086 introduced pipelining, allowing
simultaneous fetching and executing. o Used to add values from the source to the
destination. Format: ADD destination, source.
o The 8086 architecture was divided into two main
sections: o Examples provided show how values are moved into
registers using MOV and then added with ADD.
▪ Execution Unit (EU): Executes the
instructions. o Immediate operands can be directly added to a
destination register.
▪ Bus Interface Unit (BIU): Manages data
2. Program Segments
and address bus interactions and
maintains a buffer for storing upcoming
instructions.
• Segments:

o Challenges such as branch penalties occur with

o A segment is a memory area up to 64 KB, aligned at
addresses divisible by 16.
jump instructions, causing the BIU to clear its queue
and restart fetching.
o Three main segments in assembly language:

• Registers: ▪ Code Segment: Stores program

instructions.
o The 8086 includes various registers categorized by
function: ▪ Data Segment: Holds data used in the
program.
▪ General-purpose registers (AX, BX, CX,
DX), which can be accessed in 8- or 16-bit ▪ Stack Segment: Temporarily stores data,
parts. often for function calls or subroutines.

▪ Specialized registers: Used for specific

• Addresses in Segments:
tasks, with the high and low byte
accessible separately for some registers. o Physical Address: A 20-bit address on the address
bus, ranging from 00000H to FFFFFH.
3. Introduction to Assembly Language Programming
o Segment Address: A 16-bit starting address of a
• Machine and Assembly Language: segment block.
o Machine language consists of binary (0s and 1s) o Offset Address: Location within the 64 KB segment
instructions directly executed by the CPU. range (0000H to FFFFH).
o Assembly language uses mnemonics to represent o Logical Address: Combination of the segment
machine instructions, making coding more address and offset address.
accessible.
3. Addressing in Code Segment
• Assembly Language Characteristics:
• Code Segment Addressing:
o Assembly language is low-level, requiring knowledge
of the CPU’s internal structure. o The 8086 fetches instructions from the code
segment, with addresses represented by CS:IP
o Assemblers translate assembly code to machine (Code Segment and Instruction Pointer).
code, while high-level languages (like C and Pascal)
are translated by compilers. o Physical Address Calculation:

• MOV Instruction: ▪ Shift the CS register left by one hex digit,

then add the IP value.
o The MOV instruction transfers data between
registers or between memory and registers. ▪ Example: If CS = 1980H and IP = 78FEH,
the physical address is calculated as
o Key rules include: 19800 + 78FE = 210FEH.

▪ Matching source and destination sizes. 4. Addressing in Data Segment

▪ Restrictions on loading values into certain • Data Segment:

registers directly (e.g., CS, DS).
o Allocated memory for storing program data,
▪ Direct data transfer is illegal for certain including single values and arrays.
registers and data sizes exceeding their
capacity. o Addressing in the data segment uses the DS register
and offset addresses (using BX, SI, or DI registers).
 o Example: If DS = 7FA2H and the offset is 438EH, the 1. Addition (16-bit):
physical address is calculated as 7FA20 + 438E =
83DAEH. o Objective: Add two 16-bit numbers using different
addressing modes.
• Why Use the Data Segment?:
o Code Sample:
o Separating code from data enhances readability and
asm
maintenance.
Copy code
o Example: A program to add several bytes can store
data in the data segment rather than mixing it within MOV AX, OPR1 ; Direct addressing mode
the code.
ADD AX, OPR2 ; Direct addressing mode
5. Little Endian Convention
MOV SUM, AX ; Store result in extra segment
• Little Endian:
2. Subtraction (16-bit):
o In this convention, for 16-bit data, the lower byte is
stored at the lower memory address, and the higher o Objective: Subtract two 16-bit numbers using
byte at the higher memory address. addressing modes.

o Example: If AX = 35F3H, storing it at DS:1500 results o Algorithm: Load data segment, perform
in DS:1500 = F3 and DS:1501 = 35. subtraction, store result.

o Big Endian (used by Motorola): The opposite 3. Multiplication (16-bit):

convention, where the high byte goes to the low
o Objective: Multiply two 16-bit numbers and store
memory address.
result in extra segment.
Part A: Introduction to MASM
o Algorithm: Load values into registers, multiply, store
Key Concepts: result.

1. Editor: A tool to write assembly language statements and save 4. Division (16-bit):
them in a source file (.ASM).
o Objective: Divide a 32-bit number by a 16-bit
2. Assembler: Converts assembly mnemonics into binary code, number.
generating an object file (.OBJ) and an assembler list file (.LST).
o Algorithm: Load values, divide, store quotient and
3. Linker: Combines multiple object files into an executable file remainder.
(.EXE).
1. Introduction to MASM and 8086 Assembly Programming
4. Debugger: Helps load, execute, and troubleshoot code,
allowing inspection and modification of registers and memory. Key Components:

MASM (Microsoft Macro Assembler): • Editor: A program to create assembly language code files
(.ASM).
• MASM integrates an editor, assembler, linker, and debugger to
facilitate assembly language programming. • Assembler: Converts assembly mnemonics to binary codes,
creating object files (.OBJ) and list files (.LST).
Execution Procedure
• Linker: Combines object files into executable files (.EXE).
1. Open Command Prompt.

2. Check MASM Installation: Type masm in the command • Debugger: Helps in testing and troubleshooting code, allowing
prompt. you to inspect and modify register and memory contents
during program execution.
3. Directory Setup: Navigate to your folder in the command
prompt. 2. Basic Execution Procedure in MASM

4. Program Writing: Use edit programname.asm to write and 1. Open Command Prompt: Start by navigating to the DOS
save assembly code. command prompt.

5. Assemble, Link, Execute: 2. Check MASM Installation: Type masm to verify installation.

3. Create and Change Directory: Set up a working folder and

o Assemble: masm programname
navigate to it.
o Link: link programname
4. Write Program: Use edit programname.asm to open the editor
o Execute: debug programname.exe and write assembly code.

16-Bit Arithmetic Operations 5. Assemble, Link, and Execute:

Experiment 2: Arithmetic Operations o Assemble with masm programname.

 o Link with link programname.

o Execute with debug programname.exe.

3. Experiment 2: 16-Bit Arithmetic Operations

Objective:

Implement 16-bit addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division using

different addressing modes in 8086 assembly language.

Programs and Flow:

1. Addition:

o Initialize data segment.

o Perform addition on two 16-bit numbers and store

the result.

2. Subtraction:

o Similar steps as addition, but perform subtraction.

3. Multiplication:

o Multiply two 16-bit numbers, store the results in the

extra segment.

4. Division:

o Divide a 32-bit number by a 16-bit number, storing

quotient and remainder separately.

4. Experiment 3: Sorting an Array in 8086

Aim:

Write an ALP to sort 16-bit numbers in ascending and descending order.

Ascending Order Sorting

• Algorithm:

1. Initialize data and set up counters.

2. Compare each pair of numbers.

3. Swap if needed to arrange in ascending order.

4. Repeat until the list is fully sorted.

• Sample Code:

asm

Copy code

MOV AX, [SI]

CMP AX, [SI+2]

JC GO ; Jump if Carry (AX < [SI+2])

XCHG AX, [SI+2] ; Swap if in wrong order

Descending Order Sorting

• Algorithm:

1. Follow similar steps as for ascending order.

2. Compare and swap numbers to arrange them in

descending order.