### **Class Notes on the Design of Steel Structures**
*Based on "Design of Steel Structures" by Satinder Singh*
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### **Chapter 1: Introduction to Steel Structures**
- **Overview of Steel as a Structural Material**:
- Steel is commonly used for structural design due to its high strength,
ductility, and versatility.
- **Advantages**: High strength-to-weight ratio, ease of fabrication, uniform
material properties, and speed of construction.
- **Disadvantages**: Susceptible to corrosion and high initial cost.
- **Types of Steel Structures**:
- **Buildings**: Industrial, residential, and commercial.
- **Bridges**: Road bridges, railway bridges.
- **Towers**: Communication towers, transmission line towers.
- **Storage Tanks and Silos**.
- **Material Properties of Steel**:
- **Yield Strength (fy)**: The stress at which material begins to deform
plastically (usually around 250 MPa for mild steel).
- **Ultimate Strength (fu)**: The maximum stress the material can withstand.
- **Modulus of Elasticity (E)**: For steel, \( E = 200 \, \text{GPa} \).
- **Poisson's Ratio (ν)**: \( \nu \approx 0.3 \).
---
### **Chapter 2: Design Philosophy and Principles**
- **Limit State Design (LSD)**:
- The most common approach used in design of steel structures. It ensures safety
by considering both ultimate strength and serviceability.
- **Limit States**: Ultimate limit state (failure due to overloading or
structural instability) and serviceability limit state (deformation, deflection,
vibration).
- **Safety Factors**:
- For structural steel, safety factors account for uncertainties in material
properties, loads, and workmanship.
- Common factors range from 1.5 to 2.0 depending on the load type (dead load,
live load, wind load, etc.).
- **Partial Safety Factors**:
- Applied to material strengths and loads to ensure safe design. For example,
design strength \( \phi f_y \) where \( \phi \) is the resistance factor.
---
### **Chapter 3: Loads and Load Combinations**
- **Dead Loads**: Permanent loads such as the weight of the structure, cladding,
floor slabs, etc.
- **Live Loads**: Transient loads that vary over time, such as occupancy loads,
furniture, or snow loads.
- **Wind Loads**: Loads caused by wind pressure on the structure, governed by IS
875 (Part 3).
- **Earthquake Loads**: Seismic loads, considered using IS 1893 (part of seismic
design codes).
- **Load Combinations**:
- For limit state design, load combinations are considered to ensure the
structure can handle multiple load cases simultaneously:
- \( 1.5 \times (DL + LL) \)
- \( 1.5 \times (DL + LL + WL) \)
- \( 1.2 \times (DL + LL + WL) \)
- These combinations take into account extreme conditions for safety.
---
### **Chapter 4: Structural Elements in Steel**
- **Tension Members**:
- Designed for axial tensile forces. Examples: cables, rods, and some structural
beams.
- **Design Equation**:
\[ P = A \cdot f_y \cdot \phi \]
Where \( P \) is the axial load, \( A \) is the cross-sectional area, and \
( f_y \) is the yield strength of the material.
- **Compression Members**:
- Designed to resist axial compressive forces, often in columns and braces.
- **Buckling Considerations**:
- **Euler's Formula**: For long columns, \( P_{cr} = \frac{\pi^2 E I}
{(L_{eff})^2} \), where \( L_{eff} \) is the effective length.
- **Slenderness Ratio**: The ratio of the column length to its radius of
gyration. Higher slenderness leads to higher likelihood of buckling.
- **Bending Members**:
- **Beam Design**: Steel beams resist bending under loads. The strength is
defined by the bending stress:
\[ M = \frac{f_y \cdot Z}{\phi} \]
Where \( Z \) is the plastic section modulus.
- **Design of Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams**: Consider bending moments
and shear forces.
- **Shear and Combined Stress**:
- In members subject to both axial and transverse forces, combined stress must be
considered using Von Mises criteria or interaction equations.
---
### **Chapter 5: Design of Tension Members**
- **Effective Area**: In tension members, the area should account for holes,
cutouts, or other reductions in cross-section.
- Design formula:
\[ A_{eff} = A - \sum \text{(Area of holes)} \]
- **Design Criteria**:
- The maximum tensile load \( P \) is given by the formula:
\[ P = A_{eff} \cdot f_y \]
- **Connection of Tension Members**: Bolted or welded connections are used to
join tension members, considering factors like bolt strength and weld strength.
---
### **Chapter 6: Design of Compression Members**
- **Effective Length Factor (K)**: The effective length factor is used to determine
the buckling behavior of columns under axial load. It depends on end conditions:
- Fixed-Fixed: \( K = 0.7 \)
- Fixed-Free (Cantilever): \( K = 2.0 \)
- **Slenderness Ratio (\(\lambda\))**: \( \lambda = \frac{L_{eff}}{r} \), where \
( L_{eff} \) is the effective length and \( r \) is the radius of gyration.
- Columns with a high slenderness ratio are more prone to buckling.
---
### **Chapter 7: Design of Beam Sections**
- **Bending Stress**:
- The bending stress in a beam is calculated using the formula:
\[ \sigma = \frac{M}{S} \]
Where \( M \) is the bending moment and \( S \) is the section modulus.
- **Plastic Section Modulus**: For plastic bending, the section modulus is used to
calculate the maximum bending capacity.
- **Shear Stress**:
- The shear stress in a beam is calculated as:
\[ \tau = \frac{V}{A} \]
Where \( V \) is the shear force and \( A \) is the cross-sectional area.
- **Moment of Resistance**: The total moment the section can resist without
yielding or failing.
---
### **Chapter 8: Design of Welded and Bolted Connections**
- **Bolted Connections**:
- **Shear Strength of Bolts**: Bolts resist shear forces, and their strength is
governed by the formula:
\[ F_b = \tau_{max} \cdot A_b \]
Where \( F_b \) is the force in the bolt, \( \tau_{max} \) is the maximum shear
stress, and \( A_b \) is the area of the bolt.
- **Welded Connections**:
- The strength of a welded joint depends on the type of weld (fillet, butt), the
weld size, and the type of loading.
- **Design Strength of Welds**: The strength is often determined by the throat
thickness of the weld.
---
### **Chapter 9: Design of Built-Up Sections**
- **Built-Up Columns and Beams**:
- **Welded Sections**: When a single piece of steel cannot provide sufficient
strength, several pieces are welded together.
- **Lattice Girder Design**: Used in large span structures.
- **Slenderness Considerations**: Built-up sections help to reduce the
slenderness ratio and improve stability.
---
### **Chapter 10: Stability of Steel Structures**
- **Global Stability**: Ensuring that the entire structure is stable under loads.
- **Local Stability**: Ensuring that individual members do not fail due to buckling
or excessive deformation.
- **Bracing Systems**: Lateral bracing systems are necessary to prevent lateral-
torsional buckling and improve overall stability.
---
### **Chapter 11: Design of Composite Steel Structures**
- **Composite Beams and Slabs**:
- **Composite Action**: Steel beams combined with reinforced concrete slabs work
together to resist bending and shear.
- **Design Considerations**: Interaction between steel and concrete elements,
ensuring shear transfer, and overall stability.
---
### **Summary of Key Design Formulas**
1. **Tension Member Strength**:
\[ P = A \cdot f_y \]
2. **Compression Member Buckling**:
\[ P_{cr} = \frac{\pi^2 E I}{(L_{eff})^2} \]
3. **Beam Bending**:
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