CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that, the original and genuine investigation work has
been carried out to investigate about the subject Matters and the
related data collection and investigation has been completely solely,
sincerely and Satisfactorily done by Sanjib Pal, a student of Class: -
XII (Science), for academic session 2023-24, regarding the
investigatory practical for Biology department under supervision
undersigned as per the requirement for board Examination.

__________________ __________________
Signature of Internal examiner Signature of External examiner

_______________
Signature of Principal
 CONTENTS

➢ ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
➢ INTRODUCTION
➢ BASIC KNOWLEDGE
➢ TYPES OF CANCER
▪ Carcinoma
▪ Sarcoma
▪ Lymphoma and leukemia:
▪ Germ cell tumor
▪ Blastoma
➢ CAUSES
➢ CHEMICALS
➢ CANCER CURE
➢ TREATMENT OF CANCER
▪ Chemotherapy
▪ Immunotherapy
▪ Radiation therapy
▪ Targeted therapy
▪ Surgery
➢ CONCLUSION
➢ BIBLIOGRAPHY
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would acknowledge everyone who has helped and guided me in

doing this project.
I would to start by thanking my Biology teacher who has given
me an opportunity to the project on this topic. Throughout the
completion of this project, he has guided and helped me a lot in many
subtopics. I would also like to thank my friends who have helped me
a lot in collecting several information regarding this project topic.
Last but not the least I would like to thank my parents who were
always by my side encouraging and supporting me in doing this
project.
 INTRODUCTION

Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the

potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Not all tumors
are cancerous; benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body.
Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal bleeding,
prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss and a change in bowel
movements. While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they may
have other causes. Over 100 types of cancers affect humans.
Tobacco use is the cause of about 22% of cancer deaths.
Another 10% is due to obesity, poor diet, lack of physical activity,
and excessive drinking of alcohol. Other factors include certain
infections, exposure to ionizing radiation and environmental
pollutants. In the developing world nearly 20% of cancers are due to
infections such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C and human papillomavirus
infection. These factors act at least partly, by changing the genes of a
cell. Typically many genetic changes are required before cancer
develops. Approximately 5-10% of cancers are due to inherited
genetic defects from a person's parents. Cancer can be detected by
certain signs and symptoms or screening tests. It is then typically
further investigated by medical imaging and confirmed by biopsy.
 BASIC KNOWLEDGE

Cancers are a large family of diseases that involve abnormal cell

growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the
body. They form a subset of neoplasm. A neoplasm or tumor is a
group of cells that have undergone unregulated growth and will often
form a mass or lump, but may be distributed diffusely.
All tumor cells show the six hallmarks of cancer. These
characteristics are required to produce a malignant tumor. They
include:

• Cell growth and division absent the proper signals

• Continuous growth and division even given contrary signals
• Avoidance of programmed cell death
• Limitless number of cell divisions
• Promoting blood vessel construction
• Invasion of tissue and formation of metastases
The progression from normal cells to cells that can form a detectable
mass to outright cancer involves multiple steps known as malignant
progression.
 TYPES OF CANCER

Cancers are classified by the type of cell that the tumor cells resemble
and are therefore presumed to be the origin of the tumor. These types
include:

• Carcinoma: Cancers derived from epithelial cells. This group

includes many of the most common cancers and includes nearly
all those in the breast, prostate, lung, pancreas and colon.

• Sarcoma: Cancers arising from connective tissue (i.e. bone,

cartilage, fat, nerve), each of which develops from cells
originating in mesenchymal cells outside the bone marrow.

• Lymphoma and leukemia: These two classes arise from

hematopoietic (blood-forming) cells that leave the marrow and
tend to mature in the lymph nodes and blood, respectively.

• Germ cell tumor: Cancers derived from pluripotent cells, most

often presenting in the testicle or the ovary (seminoma and
dysgerminoma, respectively).

• Blastoma: Cancers derived from immature "precursor" cells or

embryonic tissue.
Cancers are usually named using-carcinoma, -sarcoma or -blastoma as
a suffix, with the Latin or Greek word for the organ or tissue of origin
as the root. For example, cancers of the liver parenchyma arising from
malignant epithelial cells is called hepatocarcinoma, while a
malignancy arising from primitive liver precursor cells is called a
hepatoblastoma and a cancer arising from fat cells is called a
liposarcoma. For some common cancers, the English organ name is
used. For example, the most common type of breast cancer is called
ductal carcinoma of the breast. Here, the adjective ductal refers to the
appearance of cancer under the microscope, which suggests that it has
originated in the milk ducts.
Benign tumors (which are not cancers) are named using -oma as a
suffix with the organ name as the root. For example, a benign tumor
of smooth muscle cells is called a leiomyoma (the common name of
this frequently occurring benign tumor in the uterus is fibroid).
Confusingly, some types of cancer use the -noma suffix, examples
including melanoma and seminoma.
Some types of cancer are named for the size and shape of the cells
under a microscope, such as giant cell carcinoma, spindle cell
carcinoma and small-cell carcinoma.
 Carcinoma

Carcinoma is a type of cancer that develops from epithelial cells.

Specifically, a carcinoma is a cancer that begins in a tissue that lines
the inner or outer surfaces of the body, and that arises from cells
originating in the germ layer during embryogenesis.
Carcinomas occur when the DNA of a cell is damaged or altered and
the cell begins to grow uncontrollably and becomemalignant. It is
from the Greek, καρκίνωμα, karkinoma, meaning sore, ulcer, or
cancer (itself derived from karkinos meaningcrab).
 Sarcoma

A sarcoma is a cancer that arises from transformed cells of

mesenchymal origin. Thus, malignant tumors made of cancellous
bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, vascular, or hematop oietic tissues are, by
definition, considered sarcomas. This is in contrast to a malignant
tumor originating from epithelial cells, which are termed carcinoma.
Human sarcomas are quite rare. Common malignancies, such as
breast, colon, and lung cancer, are almost always carcinoma. The term
is from the Greek σάρξ sarxmeaning "flesh".
 Lymphoma and Leukemia

Lymphoma is group a of blood cancers that develop from

lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell). The name often refers to
just the cancerous versions rather than all such tumors. Signs and
symptoms may include enlarged lymph nodes, fever, drenching
sweats, unintended weight loss, itching, and constantly feeling tired.
The enlarged lymph nodes are usually painless. The sweats are most
common at night. There are dozens of subtypes of lymphomas. The
two main categories of lymphomas are Hodgkin's lymphomas (HL)
and the non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL).
Leukemia, also spelled leukaemia, is a group of cancers that
usually begin in the bone marrow and result in high numbers of
abnormal white blood cells. These white blood cells are not fully
developed and are called blasts or leukemia cells. Symptoms may
include bleeding and bruising problems, feeling tired, fever, and an
increased risk of infections. These symptoms occur due to a lack of
normal blood cells. Diagnosis is typically made by blood tests or bone
marrow biopsy.
 Germ cell tumor

A germ cell tumor (GCT) is a neoplasm derived from germ cells.

Germ cell tumors can be cancerous or non-canceroustumors. Germ
cells normally occur inside the gonads (ovary and testis). Germ cell
tumors that originate outside the gonads may be birth defects resulting
from errors during development of the embryo.
 Blastoma

A blastoma is a type of cancer, more common in children, that is

caused by malignancies in precursor cells, often called blasts.
Examples are nephroblastoma, medulloblastoma, and retinobl astoma.
The suffix-blastoma is used to imply a tumor of primitive,
incompletely differentiated (or precursor) cells, e.g., chondroblastoma
are composed of cells resembling the precursor of chondrocytes.
 CAUSES

The majority of cancers, some 90-95% of cases, are due to genetic

mutations from environmental factors. The remaining 5-10% are due
to inherited genetics Environmental, as used by cancer researchers,
means any cause that is not inherited genetically, such as lifestyle,
economic and behavioral factors and not merely pollution. Common
environmental factors that contribute to cancer death include tobacco
(25-30%), diet and obesity (30-35%), infections (15-20%), radiation
(both ionizing and non-ionizing, up to 10%), stress, lack of physical
activity and pollution.
It is not generally possible to prove what caused a particular
cancer because the various causes do not have specific fingerprints.
For example, if a person who uses tobacco heavily develops lung
cancer, then it was probably caused by the tobacco use, but since
everyone has a small chance of developing lung cancer as a result of
air pollution or radiation, the cancer may have developed for one of
those reasons. Excepting the rare transmissions that occur with
pregnancies and occasional organ donors, cancer is generally not a
transmissible disease.
 Chemicals

Exposures to particular substances have been linked to specific types

of cancer. These substances are called carcinogens.
Tobacco smoke, for example, causes 90% of lung cancer. It also
causes cancer in the larynx, head, neck, stomach, bladder, kidney,
esophagus and pancreas. Tobacco smoke contains over fifty known
carcinogens, including nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons.
Tobacco is responsible for about one in five cancer deaths
worldwide and about one in three in the developed world. Lung
cancer death rates in the United States have mirrored smoking
patterns, with increases in smoking followed by dramatic increases in
lung cancer death rates and, more recently, decreases in smoking rates
since the 1950s followed by decreases in lung cancer death rates in
men since 1990.
In Western Europe, 10% of cancers in males and 3% of cancers
in females are attributed to alcohol exposure, especially liver and
digestive tract cancers. Cancer from work-related substance exposures
may cause between 2 and 20% of cases, causing at least 200,000
deaths. Cancers such as lung cancer and mesothelioma can come from
inhaling tobacco smoke or asbestos fibers, or leukemia from exposure
to benzene.
 CANCER CURE

Cancer can be treated by surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy,

hormonal therapy, targeted therapy (including immunotherapy such as
monoclonal antibody therapy) and synthetic lethality. The choice of
therapy depends upon the location and grade of the tumor and the
stage of the disease, as well as the general state of the patient
(performance status). A number of experimental cancer treatments are
also under development. Under current estimates, two in five people
will have cancer at some point in their lifetime.
Complete removal of the cancer without damage to the rest of
the body (that is, achieving cure with near-zero adverse effects) is the
ideal goal of treatment and is often the goal in practice. Sometimes
this can be accomplished by surgery, but the propensity of cancers to
invade adjacent tissue or to spread to distant sites by microscopic
metastasis often limits its effectiveness; and chemotherapy and
radiotherapy can have a negative effect on normal cells. Therefore,
cure with nonnegligible adverse effects may be accepted as a practical
goal in some cases; and besides curative intent, practical goals of
therapy can also include suppressing the cancer to a subclinical state
and maintaining that state for years of good quality of life (that is,
treating the cancer as a chronic disease), and palliative care without
curative intent (for advanced-stage metastatic cancers).
Because "cancer" refers to a class of diseases, it is unlikely that
there will ever be a single "cure for cancer" any more than there will
be a single treatment for all infectious diseases. Angiogenesis
inhibitors were once thought to have potential as a "silver bullet"
treatment applicable to many types of cancer, but this has not been the
case in practice be a beneficial treatment but it causes significant side
effects that influence the lifestyle of the young patients. Radiotherapy
is the use of high-energy rays, usually x-rays and similar rays (such as
electrons) to treat disease. It works by destroying cancer cells in the
area that's treated. Although normal cells can also be damaged by
radiotherapy, they can usually repair themselves, but cancer cells
can't. If the tumour was found on the late stage, it requires patient's
higher radiation explosion and might be harmful for the organs.
Radiotherapy is determined to be an effective treatment in adults but
it causes significant side effects that can influence patients' daily
living. In children radiotherapy mostly causes long-term side effects
such as hearing loss and blindness. Children who had received cranial
radiotherapy are deemed at a high risk for academic failure and
cognitive delay. Study by Reddy A.T. determined the significant
decrease in IQ with higher doses of radiation, specifically for children
with brain tumours. Radiation therapy is not the best treatment for
brain tumours, especially in young children as it causes significant
damages. There are alternative treatments available for young patients
such as surgical resection to decrease the occurrence of side effects.
 Treatment of cancer

Cancer can be treated by surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy,

hormonal therapy, targeted therapy (including immunotherapy such as
monoclonal antibody therapy) and synthetic lethality. The choice of
therapy depends upon the location and grade of the tumor and the
stage of the disease, as well as the general state of the patient
(performance status). A number of experimental cancer treatments are
also under development. Under current estimates, two in five people
will have cancer at some point in their lifetime.
Complete removal of the cancer without damage to the rest of
the body (that is, achieving cure with near-zero adverse effects) is the
ideal goal of treatment and is often the goal in practice. Sometimes
this can be accomplished by surgery, but the propensity of cancers to
invade adjacent tissue or to spread to distant sites by microscopic
metastasis often limits its effectiveness; and chemotherapy and
radiotherapy can have a negative effect on normal cells. Therefore,
cure with nonnegligible adverse effects may be accepted as a practical
goal in some cases; and besides curative intent, practical goals of
therapy can also include (1) suppressing the cancer to a subclinical
state and maintaining that state for years of good quality of life (that
is, treating the cancer as a chronic disease), and (2) palliative care
without curative intent (for advanced-stage metastatic cancers).
Because "cancer" refers to a class of diseases, it is unlikely that
there will ever be a single "cure for cancer" any more than there will
be a single treatment for all infectious diseases. Angiogenesis
inhibitors were once thought to have potential as a "silver bullet"
treatment applicable to many types of cancer, but this has not been the
case in practice.
 Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and sometimes CTX or

CTx) is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer
drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized
chemotherapy regimen. Chemotherapy may be given with a curative
intent (which almost always involves combinations of drugs), or it
may aim to prolong life or to reduce symptoms (palliative
chemotherapy). Chemotherapy is one of the major categories of the
medical discipline specifically devoted to pharmacotherapy for
cancer, which is called medical oncology.
The term chemotherapy has come to connote non-specific usage
of intracellular poisons to inhibit mitosis, cell division. The
connotation excludes more selective agents that block extracellular
signals (signal transduction). The development of therapies with
specific molecular or genetic targets, which inhibit growth-promoting
signals from classic endocrine hormones (primarily estrogens for
breast cancer and androgens for prostate cancer) are now called
hormonal therapies. By contrast, other inhibitions of growth-signals
like those associated with receptor tyrosine kinases are referred to as
targeted therapy.
Importantly, the use of drugs (whether chemotherapy, hormonal
therapy or targeted therapy) constitutes systemic therapy for cancer in
that they are introduced into the blood stream and are therefore in
principle able to address cancer at any anatomic location in the body.
Systemic therapy is often used in conjunction with other modalities
that constitute local therapy (i.e. treatments whose efficacy is
confined to the anatomic area where they are applied) for cancer such
as radiation therapy, surgery or hyperthermia therapy.
 Traditional chemotherapeutic agents are cytotoxic by means of
interfering with cell division (mitosis) but cancer cells vary widely in
their susceptibility to these agents. To a large extent, chemotherapy
can be thought of as a way to damage or stress cells, which may then
lead to cell death if apoptosis is initiated. Many of the side effects of
chemotherapy can be traced to damage to normal cells that divide
rapidly and are thus sensitive to anti-mitotic drugs: cells in the bone
marrow, digestive tract and hair follicles. This results in the most
common side- effects of chemotherapy: myelosuppression (decreased
production of blood cells, hence also immunosuppression), mucositis
(inflammation of the lining of the digestive tract), and alopecia (hair
loss). Because of the effect on immune cells (especially lymphocytes).
chemotherapy drugs often find use in a host of diseases that result
from harmful overactivity of the immune system against self (so-
called autoimmunity). These include rheumatoid arthritis, systemic
lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, vasculitis and many others.
 Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy refers to a diverse set of therapeutic strategies

designed to induce the patient's own immune system to fight the
tumor. Contemporary methods for generating an immune response
against tumours include intravesical BCG immunotherapy for
superficial bladder cancer, and use of interferons and other cytokines
to induce an immune response in renal cell carcinoma and melanoma
patients. Cancer vaccines to generate specific immune responses are
the subject of intensive research for a number of tumours, notably
malignant melanoma and renal cell carcinoma. Sipuleucel- Tis a
vaccine-like strategy in late clinical trials for prostate cancer in which
dendritic cells from the patient are loaded with prostatic acid
phosphatase peptides to induce a specific immune response against
prostate- derived cells.
Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation ("bone
marrow transplantation" from a genetically non-identical donor) can
be considered a form of immunotherapy, since the donor's immune
cells will often attack the tumor in a phenomenon known as graft-
versus-tumor effect. For this reason, allogeneic HSCT leads to a
higher cure rate than autologous transplantation for several cancer
types, although the side effects are also more severe.
The cell based immunotherapy in which the patient’s own
Natural Killer cells(NK) and Cytotoxic T-Lymphocytes (CTL) are
used has been in practice in Japan since 1990. NK cells and CTLs
primarily kill the cancer cells when they are developed. This
treatment is given together with the other modes of treatment such as
Surgery, radiotherapy or Chemotherapy and called as Autologous
Immune Enhancement Therapy (AIET).
 Radiation Therapy

Radiation therapy or radiotherapy, often abbreviated RT, RTx, or

XRT, is therapy using ionizing radiation, generally as part of cancer
treatment to control or kill malignant cells and normally delivered by
a linear accelerator. Radiation therapy may be curative in a number of
types of cancer if they are localized to one area of the body. It may
also be used as part of adjuvant therapy, to prevent tumor recurrence
after surgery to remove a primary malignant tumor (for example,
early stages of breast cancer). Radiation therapy is synergistic with
chemotherapy, and has been used before, during, and after
chemotherapy in susceptible cancers. The subspecialty of oncology
concerned with radiotherapy is called radiation oncology.
Radiation therapy is commonly applied to the cancerous tumor
because of its ability to control cell growth. lonizing radiation works
by damaging the DNA of cancerous tissue leading to cellular death.
To spare normal tissues (such as skin or organs which radiation must
pass through to treat the tumor), shaped radiation beams are aimed
from several angles of exposure to intersect at the tumor, providing a
much larger absorbed dose there than in the surrounding, healthy
tissue. Besides the tumour itself, the radiation fields may also include
the draining lymph nodes if they are clinically or radiologically
involved with tumor, or if there is thought to be a risk of subclinical
malignant spread. It is necessary to include a margin of normal tissue
around the tumor to allow for uncertainties in daily set-up and internal
tumor motion. These uncertainties can be caused by internal
movement (for example, respiration and bladder filling) and
movement of external skin marks relative to the tumor position.
 Radiation oncology is the medical specialty concerned with
prescribing radiation, and is distinct from radiology, the use of
radiation in medical imaging and diagnosis. Radiation may be
prescribed by a radiation oncologist with intent to cure ("curative") or
for adjuvant therapy. It may also be used as palliative treatment
(where cure is not possible and the aim is for local disease control or
symptomatic relief) or as therapeutic treatment (where the therapy has
survival benefit and it can be curative). It is also common to combine
radiation therapy with surgery, chemotherapy, hormone therapy,
immunotherapy or some mixture of the four. Most common cancer
types can be treated with radiation therapy in some way.
The precise treatment intent (curative, adjuvant, neoadjuvant
therapeutic, or palliative) will depend on the tumor type, location, and
stage, as well as the general health of the patient. Total body
irradiation (TBI) is a radiation therapy technique used to prepare the
body to receive a bone marrow transplant. Brachytherapy, in which a
radioactive source is placed inside or next to the area requiring
treatment, is another form of radiation therapy that minimizes
exposure to healthy tissue during procedures to treat cancers of the
breast, prostate and other organs. Radiation therapy has several
applications in non-malignant conditions, such as the treatment of
trigeminal neuralgia, acoustic neuromas, severe thyroid eye disease,
pterygium, pigmented villonodular synovitis, and prevention of keloid
scar growth, vascular restenosis, and heterotopic ossification. The use
of radiation therapy in non-malignant conditions is limited partly by
worries about the risk of radiation-induced cancers.
 Targeted therapy
Targeted therapy, which first became available in the late 1990s, has
had a significant impact in the treatment of some types of cancer, and
is currently a very active research area. This constitutes the use of
agents specific for the deregulated proteins of cancer cells. Small
molecule targeted therapy drugs are generally inhibitors of enzymatic
domains on mutated, overexpressed, or otherwise critical proteins
within the cancer cell. Prominent examples are the tyrosine kinase
inhibitors imatinib (Gleevec/Glivec) and gefitinib (Iressa).
Monoclonal antibody therapy is another strategy in which the
therapeutic agent is an antibody which specifically binds to a protein
on the surface of the cancer cells. Examples include the anti
HER2/neu antibody trastuzumab (Herceptin) used in breast cancer,
and the anti-CD20 antibody rituximab, used in a variety of B-cell
malignancies.
Targeted therapy can also involve small peptides as "homing
devices" which can bind to cell surface receptors or affected
extracellular matrix surrounding the tumor. Radionuclides which are
attached to these peptides (e.g. RGDs) eventually kill the cancer cell
if the nuclide decays in the vicinity of the cell. Especially oligo- or
multimers of these binding motifs are of great interest, since this can
lead to enhanced tumor specificity and avidity.
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a ternary treatment for cancer
involving a photo sensitizer, tissue oxygen, and light (often using
lasers (12)). PDT can be used as treatment for basal cell carcinoma
(BCC) or lung cancer; PDT can also be useful in removing traces of
malignant tissue after surgical removal of large tumors.
High-energy therapeutic ultrasound could increase higher-
density anti- cancer drug load and nanomedicines to target tumor sites
by 20x fold higher than traditional target cancer therapy.
 Surgery

In theory, non-hematological cancers can be cured if entirely removed

by surgery, but this is not always possible. When the cancer has
metastasized to other sites in the body prior to surgery, complete
surgical excision is usually impossible. In the Halstedian model of
cancer progression, tumors grow locally, then spread to the lymph
nodes, then to the rest of the body. This has given rise to the
popularity of local-only treatments such as surgery for small cancers.
Even small localized tumors are increasingly recognized as
possessing metastatic potential.
Examples of surgical procedures for cancer include mastectomy
for breast cancer, prostatectomy for prostate cancer, and lung cancer
surgery for non-small cell lung cancer. The goal of the surgery can be
either the removal of only the tumor, or the entire organ. A single
cancer cell is invisible to the naked eye but can regrow into a new
tumor, a process called recurrence. For this reason, the pathologist
will examine the surgical specimen to determine if a margin of
healthy tissue is present, thus decreasing the chance that microscopic
cancer cells are left in the patient.
In addition to removal of the primary tumor, surgery is often
necessary for staging, e.g. determining the extent of the disease and
whether it has metastasized to regional lymph nodes. Staging is a
major determinant of prognosis and of the need for adjuvant therapy.
Occasionally, surgery is necessary to control symptoms, such as
spinal cord compression or bowel obstruction. This is referred to as
palliative treatment.
Surgery may be performed before or after other forms of treatment.
Treatment before surgery is often described as neoadjuvant. In breast
cancer, the survival rate of patients who receive neoadjuvant
chemotherapy are no different to those who are treated following
surgery.Giving chemotherapy earlier allows oncologists to evaluate
the effectiveness of the therapy, and may make removal of the tumor
easier. However, the survival advantages of neoadjuvant treatment in
lung cancer are less clear.
 CONCLUSION

Generally it can be stated that rare cancers are a minority within each
group of cancers of a specific organ or organ system. However, there
is a marked diversity in incidence amongst the group of rare cancers.
Some rare cancers are not so uncommon such as for example
squamous cell carcinoma of the larynx (5.94/100,000 per year), other
are very rare and have not even been reported during the observation
period such as for example lymph epithelial carcinoma of the thymus.
It is also important to mention that in the RARECARE list both sexes
are combined to determine a rare cancer. In the present study, the
RARECARE definition has been applied to the incidences of both
sexes together, but also of each sex separately. In the case of
laryngeal cancer, this tumour is a common cancer in males
(10.77/100,000 per year) but a rare cancer in females (1.23/100,000
per year). Additionally, not all tumours listed as rare in the
RARECARE list, are rare in the Flemish Region, as for example the
squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix uteri which is common in the
Flemish Region (9.11/100,000 per year) but rare according to the
RARECARE list. Besides testicular and trophoblastic cancer,
incidences are very low in young patients between the age of 15 and
40 years. In most cases there is a continuous increase in age specific
incidence, starting at ages between 40 and 60 years. As a
consequence, most tumours mainly occur in older patients. In some
cases however, as for example in papillary serous
cystadenocarcinoma of the ovary, there is a peak around 65-70 years
followed by a decline thereafter.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.google.co.in/sarch?q=cancer+conclusion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatment_of_cancer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer
Comprehensive Biology (Class XII)