NAME: ANISHA MANDAL

SUBJECT: WOMEN
STUDIES
DEPARTMENT: ECONOMICS
UNIVERSITY
REGISTRATION NUMBER:
UNIVERSITY ROLL
NUMBER: 24-BSC-ECOA-
0015
COLLEGE ROLL NUMBER:
03
SEMESTER: 1
YEAR: 2024-25

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 TOPIC

FEMINISM

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 CONTENTS
SL. TOPIC PAGE NUMBER
NO

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 INTRODUCTION
About half of the global human population is
women. In every step, all over the world;
women face inequality, subordination, and
secondary class status. Often, they are victim of
the oppression, marginalization and
exploitation in the patriarchal societies. Before
the First Industrial Revolution, the human life
was not men dominated, and both men and
women contribute equally in the society. The
Industrial Revolution began in England in about
1750-1760 that lasted to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution
dramatically changed the global social order and consequently, a new gender system started
worldwide that disadvantaged women. During this period men started to work in the
industries and women were restricted to the domestic sphere. As a result, they remain
vulnerable socially, politically, and economically. The industrialization also developed a new
class system; aristocratic class. In the 21st century there is no straightforward definition of
feminism. At present, there are as many definitions of feminism as there are feminists
depending on their own beliefs, history and culture, but gender equality is common to all.
Feminism is a women basis socio-political movement and ideology, and supports the idea
“women should share equality in society’s opportunities and scarce resources”. Oxford
Dictionary defines feminism as “the belief and aim that women should have the same rights
and opportunities as men; the struggle to achieve this aim”. The feminism is characterized by
“the activism for the purpose of challenging and changing women’s subordination to men”.
Feminism is an ideology that demands an equal right of men and women in terms of politics,
decision making, career, and having children. It consists of a number of social, cultural and
political movements that take attempts for equal rights of men and women. It is considered
as a struggle to achieve same rights, opportunities and dignity as men have in the society. It
has raised much in the western upper-class society and the women have fought for women’s
suffrage and reproductive rights. The rise of feminism in Europe occurred as “women of all
classes became increasingly aware of the way in which their sex influenced their life chances
and experiences”. It endeavours to see an end to the dominance of men over women, and to
provide equal rights between women and men in all fields ranging from household issues to
politics.
Different disciplines, such as sociology, philosophy, economics, and politics, served as
distinctive intellectual backgrounds of feminism. Feminism explains and suggests directions
for the change in social and environmental factors; tries to highlight the propose
interventions for women’s intrapersonal and interpersonal concerns, and provides a
perspective for evaluating social and environmental experiences of groups and individuals,
regardless of sex or gender. It has changed the lives of millions of women.

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WHAT IS FEMINISM?
There is no fixed definition of feminism and
it has a variety of meanings and
interpretations. Feminists of different
fields of life define feminism according to
their own social, political, religious, and
cultural perspectives. According to
Cambridge Dictionaries, feminism can be
seen as “the belief that women should be
allowed the same rights, power, and
opportunities as men and be treated in
the same way, or the set of activities
intended to achieve this state”. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, “feminism is the
belief in the social, economic, and political equality of the sexes”. It consists of a number of
social, cultural and political movements, theories and moral philosophies concerned with
gender inequalities and equal rights for women. It is against the abuse of power, and seeks
equality and justice under different domains, such as economy, class, caste, race, culture,
religion, etc. Therefore, feminism is a diverse, rival and often opposing collection of social
theories, political movements, and moral philosophies. It mainly looks social, political, and
economic inequalities of women. It tries to describe women oppression; searches strategies,
causes, and consequences to remove discrepancies from the society. It takes attempts to
achieve the objective of equality, dignity, rights, emancipation and empowerment of
women. Therefore, it is the struggle against sexism, where male supremacy and female
oppression are happened. Actually, sexism is not a modern phenomenon and is a form of
social oppression.
Feminism is an umbrella term for a number of
cultural phenomena. It tries to acquire freedom for
women to work, and make independent
economically, and psychologically. It indicates
institutional and grassroots activities to abolish
gender-based inequalities from the society. It
hopes to discover the hidden reality of male
domination, and women subordination and
subjugation in the world, and aims to give equal
rights to women economically, politically, and
socially. It supports a broader struggle of freedom
for women to make their own decisions related to their bodies, financial independence,
freedom to choose their lives and sexual choices, and liberation from all types of oppression.
Key Characteristics of Feminism
• Feminism is not a singular (single) or unitary (one and only) concept. It is made up of a
wide range of ideas, which are diverse, complex, and sometimes contradictory as well.

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• Feminism is not a static or rigid concept. Feminist movements evolve with time. Fifty years
ago, the fight to ensure that girls go to school was a feminist movement; today, demanding
that women be able to be in the streets without the fear of sexual harassment is a feminist
movement. Feminism also varies from place to place, from class to class. Thus, it is said that
there cannot be one type of Feminism.
• Feminism involves Looking at the world through a woman's eyes. It is essential, because till
now the world has been seen and explained from men's perspectives, and that only reveals
half of reality. • Feminism is not anti- men (anti- against). It is anti-discrimination, anti-
injustice and anti-inequality. In fact, in a number of feminist movements, it is men who have
played an active leadership role to fight for equality.
• Feminism is an everyday practise. It is a fight against patriarchal practices and sexism
(belief that men and women are absolutely opposites) in daily lives and not only about being
in an organisation or joining feminist groups.

WHO IS A FEMINIST?
Feminist is a person who believes in the social,
political, and economic equality of the sexes. The
feminist aims to terminate all forms of male
domination. Feminist research focuses on gender
and tries to establish gender equality in the world.
The conservative feminist Genevan philosopher,
writer, and composer; Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712-1778), had argued that men and women are by
nature not merely different in kind but different in “natural rank”. She wrote that women are
biologically fit to play the roles of wives and mothers, and unable for work in the public
sphere. She revealed that women being weaker physically, intellectually, and emotionally.
She tried to establish sexual dimorphism on the logic that men are more rational, and
women are more emotional and passionate, and set up complementary roles for men and
women. She and some other social contractualists have not considered women as rational
human beings. Although they have
conservative believe about feminism, and
do not think about the gender equability;
later English philosopher and physician
John Locke (1632-1704), known as the
“Father of Liberalism”, had argued that the
sexes should receive the same education,
share equal rights, and responsibilities.
Betty Friedan, the first president of the
National Organization for Women had
published “The Feminine Mystique” in 1963.
Although women have the right to vote and hold property, but they spend too much time for

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polishing and organizing homes that experience boredom and anxiety. She has realized that
they need to go outside of the domestic area by entering into public life as a paid
employment. She has argued that equality and human dignity are not possible for women if
they are not able to earn. Consequently, employment opportunities for women need to be
widened, and many discriminatory laws must be abandoned.

TYPES OF FEMINISM
In the society, women oppression and subordination are different; consequently, different
feminist groups have emerged in different times. But the main goal of every group is to
achieve gender equality. Feminism can be manifested into seven categories as;

LIBERAL
FEMINISM

SOCIALIST MARXIST
FEMINISM FEMINISM

BLACK
TYPES OF POST MODERN
FEMINISM
FEMINISM FEMINISM

RADICAL CULTURAL
FEMINISM FEMINISM

ECOFEMINISM

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Each ideology tries to describe women’s oppression, explains the causes and consequences,
and suggested strategies for women liberation. Feminists support a gender-based view of
the state, which is based on the creation of a gender-neutral society. On the other hand,
they are against the flawed, vague, and illogical procedures of thinking and writing about
women. Most feminist categories suggest for the elimination of misperceptions, sexual
inequalities, restrictions, and oppression faced by women. Feminism seeks to appreciate the
ways in which women are oppressed: socially, economically, politically and psychologically to
reduce their various oppressions.

LIBERAL FEMINISM
Liberalism is a political and economic principle
that stresses individual independence, equality of
opportunity, and the protection of individual
rights. It supports rule of law, civil and human
rights, secularism, democracy, freedom of
speech, press, religion, and property. It encourages
the development of freedoms, particularly in the political and economic spheres. It is a
“feminist theory that believes gender inequality is created by lowering access for women
and girls to civil rights and allocation of social resources such as education and
employment”. Liberal feminism originates from the liberal political theory, inspired by
French Revolution, and focuses mainly on equality. It is derived from the liberal political
philosophy with the core ideas of autonomy, universal rights, equal citizenship, and
democracy. According to liberal feminists, society has a false belief that women are, by
nature, less intellectually and physically capable than men. They believe that all human is
equally rational to perform any job and subordination of women is due to certain outdated
beliefs. Men are judged through their merits, whereas women’s abilities are deemed due to
their sex. They stress that men and women should have equal rights and women have equal
opportunities as men. Actually, we cannot eliminate gender oppression unless we change
the society from the bottom up.
Liberal feminism first emerged between the 17th and 18th centuries in the western
countries to educate women with liberal ideas, and later expanded in the rest of the world.
Finally, in the 19th century feminists extended the arguments in favour of equal rights for
women under the law to own property and to vote. Liberal feminism is the most widely
accepted social and political philosophy among feminists. It has arisen as a theoretical
background to nurture the feminism movements. It is a
main branch of contemporary feminism that tries to
establish gender equality in the society. It is inclusive and
socially progressive. It “tends to be adopted by
„mainstream‟ (i.e., middle-class) women who do not

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disagree with the current social structure”. Liberal feminism supports suffrages, such as
equal rights to education, equal political and civil rights, right to vote for all citizens
irrespective of men and women. It concentrates more on issues, such as equality in the
workplace, in education, and in political rights.
The pioneers of liberal feminism are Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), John Stuart Mill
(1806- 1873), and Harriet Taylor Mill (1807-1858), who act for women rights and liberation,
when the economic and social position of European women was very low. Seminal feminist
work “A Vindication of the Rights of Women” developed by famous English author Mary
Wollstonecraft in 1792, which is considered as the beginning of the liberal feminist
movement.
Liberal feminists also demanded equal rights for voting, reproduction, abortion and child
healthcare, and reaction against sexual harassment. They believe that nobody benefits from
existing gender inequalities; both men and women are harmed, because the potential of
females and males alike is suppressed. Consequently, many skilled members of the
workforce do not get the opportunity to develop their talents. On the other hand, a dual
income family is more solvent than a single earning family.
Liberal feminism works within the structure of mainstream society to integrate women into
it and make it more responsive to individual women’s rights. But it does not directly
challenge the system itself or the ideology behind women’s oppression. It has failed to fully
address the root cause of gender inequality. There becomes a great global social change due
to liberal feminism. It considers that women are foremost human beings and not sexual
beings. As women are rational creatures as like men and they should not be denied from
natural rights and should have freedom to act according to their wishes. Moreover, liberal
feminists aim for gradual change in the political, economic and social systems of societies.
Liberal feminists show mixed opinions on prostitution and pornography. The three main
elements in prostitution practice are: payment, promiscuity, and emotional indifference.
Many liberal feminists reject to condemn or criminalize the prostitution and pornography,
because much of it involves coercions and choices that are not autonomous. Liberal
feminists have observed that women who pose for pornography and engage in prostitution
are violently forced or coerced into it. On the other hand, many liberal feminists oppose
prostitution and pornography. In the society these are inconsistent with dignity, solidarity,
and equality. They realize that prostitution was not the selling of sex but the selling of
mastery; they do not provide a service but sell their own subordination. Childhood sexual
abuse, drug dependency, and poverty are endemic among prostitutes and other sex
workers.

MARXIST FEMINISM
Marxism is a political philosophy, led by left-wing people;
inspired and founded by the two great German philosophers,
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), and
is generally referred to as the economic theory of history. It is
a political doctrine that deals in releasing the chains of

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oppression is applied by the elite class using frames like law, religion, race, and sources of
production. Capitalism has created two major social classes: i) bourgeoisie, which is the owner of the
means of social production (i.e., owners of capitalist companies), and ii) proletariat, which is the
employer of wage-labour (sell labour force in exchange for a wage) having no means of production of
their own, subjugated in all affairs of socioeconomic life. The bourgeoisie makes profits from the
exploitation (i.e., paying low) to the proletariat. After the Industrial Revolution, the poor from rural
areas were displaced to the urban areas and the concentration of wealth in the hands of the new
capitalist class. Both philosophers, Marx and Engels, observed that the difference between men and
women is not biological but social. Their philosophy confirms that economy is the controlling factor
of all the realities in the shape of culture, class, creed, education, race, religion, etc. Their works
strongly support the powerful insights to interpret the structures denoting women’s oppression.
They have insisted that patriarchy is a product of capitalism. Capitalism has made a sexual division of
labour; men to economic production and women to social reproduction.

According to Marxism, the state is an instrument of class struggle in which the bourgeoisie class
exploits the proletariat class. Women should not struggle against men but against the bourgeois
system under capitalism, which is a collective work of both men and women of the working class.
Marxism considers that gender inequality within the society has produced from capitalism and
“men’s domination over women is a byproduct of capital’s domination over labour”. Engels mentions
“Within the family he (man) is the bourgeois and the wife represents the proletariat”. It is made to
appear natural at the behest of patriarchal forces, which Engels calls “final defeat of female sex”. He
has an intention to emancipate women from the burden of unpaid and devalued domestic duties,
patriarchy and economic deprivation. He has highlighted the struggle of women throughout the
history. He has observed that economically weak women suffer greatly on patriarchy, but financially
solvent women enjoy more social security. He and other Marxist feminists demand women’s
liberation from economic deprivation. He assures that to liberate women a revolution against the
capitalistic order of society is necessary. Nancy Holmstrom says, “Marxist feminism is an
emancipatory, critical framework that aims at understanding and explaining gender oppression in a
systematic way”.

MARXISM: EQUALITY
FEMINISM:
ECONOMIC WOMEN'S
STRUCTURE RIGHTS

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 Marxist feminists indicate the secondary oppression of women
with economic, social and political structures related to
capitalism. It has stressed to adjust domestic labour, as well as
wage work to support their position. It believes that the
contribution in economic household may give women a better
position in the family. It has realized that oppression on women
is not only from men but also from women. For Marxist
feminists, if the class distinctions can be overcome in the
society through unity of the working (oppressed) class, then
women can be free, and their housework should be valued by
the state and society. Moreover, Marxist feminists add that,
women must take an active part in the unity of oppressed class
against the bourgeoisie. The way to this unity is all about raising
awareness according to Marxist feminism. In Marxist feminism
ethnicity, race, wage labour, etc. are ignored. Although Marxist
feminism is very well-known framework, it does not have
adequate theoretical involvement for uprooting gender
dominance from the society. Marxist feminists see the
patriarchy as a product of capitalism. Women oppression would be linked to private property that
creates an environment the control of women by fathers and later by husbands. Marxists reject the
capitalist state in totality, but they demand freedom and equality of gender. On the other hand,
unpaid domestic work is relatively invisible in Marxist feminism.

SOCIALIST FEMINISM
Socialist feminism is a vibrant intellectual and
political current that has come and gone. It has
arisen to produce a creative synthesis of debates
in the late 1960s about the roots of the
oppression of women. It is inspired by Marxism,
and is developed for the reaction to liberal
feminism, but it does not lead to the abolition of
patriarchy in social relations. Marxism is stuck
with the complexity of class analysis which
socialist feminists consider as gender blind.
Socialist feminism gained popularity in the
1960s and 1970s. It gradually faded from the
1980s and was abolished after the collapse of
communism in the early 1990s. Socialist
feminists believe that women are exploited by a
dual system: capitalist and patriarchal. They reject radical feminism idea that patriarchy is the only
system at the root of gender inequality. They also reject the Marxist notion, where class and class
struggle are the only defining aspects of history and economic development. They believe that the
home is not just a place of consumption, but of production as well. They agree with the fundamental
premises of both Marxist feminisms, where capitalism is the source of women oppression, and
radical feminism, where patriarchy is the source of women oppression. Socialist feminism wants to

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analyse the effects of fair distribution of rewards to realize the correlation between gender and
classes. The main aim of it is to overcome the historical account of the exploitation of women. It
analyses both economic and gender-based oppressions and any one form of oppression is not the
key form of oppression, instead it is a combination of systems related to gender, sexuality, ethnicity,
race, social class, and nation that are all interlinked. Gender and class intertwine to create new forms
of oppression and privileges.

Socialist feminists have realized that liberal feminism does not stress on the depth of the oppression
of women, rather it targets the women of the upper and upper middle classes. Actually, women have
been oppressed in all known societies, and the
nature of oppression is differed for the
different economic realities. Oppression of
women is not only on the economic system,
but also on the combination of patriarchy and
capitalism. Socialist feminists argue that even
though women are oppressed in almost all
societies, the degree and character of
oppression depends upon the economic
realities of a given society. They stress that in
the society women are considered as birth
giver, child rearer and socializer, caretaker of
the sick people, etc. When women engage in
the job-market, they are subjected to lower
wages than men and victim of sexual
harassment. To achieve liberation of women,
the movement should be aimed at taking all
issues collectively. Socialist feminism wishes
to promote equal wages and the unionization of women in the society. But it has remained silent on
race, sexuality or disability. Social Feminists believe that the state supports the patriarchal structure
that exists in the family. They have seen that women liberation is a necessary part of social,
economic and political action. Socialist feminism has evolved through the three goals:

i) it analyses the exploitation of women as a result of the two interconnected aspects of patriarchy
and capitalism,

ii) it provides extensive social analysis methods to realize historical materialism,

iii) it shows the need for significant ideas in material analysis to determine human affairs. Social
feminists have seen that class differences among women influence their gender experience. For
example, women from the upper classes may employ poorer women to do the domestic work for
them. It stresses heavily on the economic dimension of gender inequality, the detriment of other
areas of women’s lives, such as sexuality, violence or abortion. Socialist feminists find economic
dependence of women on men as main cause of their subordination. Therefore, they want social and
economic equality and financial independence of women.

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RADICAL FEMINISM
Radical feminism is a
movement founded
in the 1960s by the
women who had
participated in the
civil rights and anti-
war campaigns,
primarily in New York
and Boston, then
spread to the rest of
the USA and Europe;
on the basis of the
idea that patriarchy is
the main cause of
discrimination and
oppression of
women. It views that patriarchy and sexism are the most fundamental factors in the discrimination
and oppression of women and ignore all others forms, such as race, colour, age, religion, ethnicity,
culture, geographical location, disability, caste, and economic and social classes; patriarchy is based
in psychological and biological factors, which is rooted in the society. Radical feminism also highlights
violence and coercion made by men through rape, sexual harassment, child sexual assault, domestic
violence; abuse for women, children, and vulnerable men in patriarchy. It blames the exploitation of
women on men, who have benefited from the subordination of women. It sees women as one
homogeneous group and recognizes them to be oppressed by men. Main advocators of radical
feminism are Kate Millet (1934-2017), an American feminist writer, educator, artist, and activist, and
Germane Greer (1939- ), an Australian writer and public intellectual. They complained exploitation of
women as housewives, mothers, and sex partners; and also see the marriage as a formalization of
women persecution.

Radical feminism is the radical evolution and extreme development of liberal feminists inside the
20th century. It opposes patriarchal
oppression and female maltreatment, and
tries to prevent male-dominated society. It
focuses on power of men and patriarchy,
and privilege within the social system that
seeks to promote women organizations as
separate social organizations. It is based on
two principles:

i) women are of absolute positive value,

and

ii) they are oppressed violently everywhere

due to the system of patriarchy.

It views patriarchy and sexism as the most

fundamental factors in women’s oppression.
It respects women as a political class, because

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of their biological functions. It does not favour marriage and family, as both of them help to establish
patriarchy in the society. It stresses that women who give birth, are different from men, and
therefore they should have their own rights rather than only equal rights to those of men have. It
seeks to promote division between peoples on superficial differences; its propositions seem to be
unrealistic, and often considers as the route to violence. So that it is considered as both class and
colour blindness and also heterosexuals.

Radical feminists see the society as patriarchal, and it is dominated and ruled by men, i.e., men are
ruling class, and women are the subject class. Moreover, they believe that women are not just equal
but are actually morally superior to men and patriarchy can be replaced by matriarchy. They want to
transform the women life and the society through radical actions. They think that men to be enemies
of women and consider marriage as a hegemonic contract to exploit women. They prefer the use of
technologies to men for the fulfilment of sexual desires and reproductive need.

The early radical feminists Betty Friedan

realized that women are oppressed by the
cultural construction of society because of
their sex. The radical feminist group shows
logic that a woman’s decision to marry should
be a rational strategy rather than surrendering
to a false sentiment. They viewed gender as a
socially contrived absolute category than
masculinity or femininity. Mary Daly and other
activists have argued that women are closer to
ecology, but men are to their sexuality.
According to radical feminism, women
exploitation has resulted from socio-cultural practices in patriarchal societies and the Marxism
believes that the main source of oppression and causes is inferior position of women in the
communities. Radical feminists believe that prostitution, pornography, stripping, massage parlours,
escort services are sexual exploitation industries, and men routinely buy and sell objectified female
bodies for their sexual pleasure. Feminists like Andrea Dworkin and Catherine Mackinnon are very
strongly against pornography, because it is dehumanizing and degrading for women. In the 1980s,
some radical feminists argued that participation of women in the manufacture of pornography and in
prostitution were not linked to patriarchy.

ECOFEMINISM
Oppression of women and domination of
nature are connected and mutually
strengthening. In the late 20th century,
ecofeminism is emerged with the supports
of the fight for women empowerment and
sustainable environment. Ecofeminism
defines as “the feminist position most
explicitly concerned with environmental
degradation”. It is much more spiritual than
political or theoretical in nature. It contains
two major components; ecology and
feminine. It believes that women realize and

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love nature instinctually, and oppose
oppression of women and aggression against
nature under patriarchy. Ecofeminists Alice
Walker, Vandana Shiva, Ivone Gebara, and
others deal with the moral basis of human
connection to nature. There are many
movements in the world that are related to
ecofeminism, for example, Chipko movement
in India, Anti-Militarist movement in Europe
and the USA, Green Belt movement in Kenya.

In our society, there are some order dualities, such as male/female, white/black, culture/nature,
West/East, human/nature, white/black, conscious/unconscious, logic/emotion, strong/weak, and
spirit/body occur, and former dominates the latter. For example, conscious is superior to
unconscious, the West is superior and civilized but East is inferior, white people have in superior
positions than black people, and logic is superior to emotion. In some societies, culture is superior to
nature, and man is superior to woman. Therefore, if man symbolizes culture, consciousness, logic
and spirit; woman must represent nature, unconsciousness, emotion and body. If we consider case
of women and nature, both are similarly conceptualized, and both are
exploited in the masculine-dominated society. Ecofeminism is an
organic combination of feminist and ecological thoughts that are
articulated through the work of women gardeners, botanists, animal
welfare advocates, etc. It focuses ecology and feminism into one
point, and seeks to draw parallels between the exploitation of the
environment and the exploitation of women. It is rooted in a
reawakening of earth honouring and earth caring. It shows that
women are closer to nature than men are. In the 21st century, nature
is in the dangerous position due to rapid urbanization,
industrialization, commercialization and unlimited needs of human
beings. Women and nature are same in various ways due to their
biological status, reproductive role, and discrimination; both defined
as passive subjects that subjected
to violence and social inequalities.

Françoise d‟Eaubonne (1920-2005), a French author, labour rights

activist, environmentalist and feminist, introduced the idea of
ecofeminism in 1974 through the publication of her book “Le
Féminisme ou la Mort”. She has realized that the only way to save
the environment is through the destruction of male power by
women. The movement was further developed by Ynestra King in
about 1976 and became a movement in 1980. Ecofeminists
believe that male-dominated culture thrives on sexism, racism,
class-exploitation, and environmental destruction. Of course, they
agree that there is a close link between the liberation of women
and of nature. They have called the women and men to re-
conceptualize world in non-hierarchical ways. They claim that
environmental problems and women’s issues are interrelated.
Ecofeminism views patriarchy and its focus on control and
domination not only as a source of women’s oppression but as

15
being harmful to humanity as well as destructive of all living creatures and the earth itself. It stresses
that humans and nature must live in harmony to maintain ecological balance and sustainable
development. It observes women rights and empowerment that are related to political, economic,
social and cultural factors, which benefit all living creatures. Women can reproduce and create a life,
just like nature, they raise children and feed them. Nature is just like a mother, ensuring the
continuity of life on earth with its resources. Nature is mentioned as “Mother Nature, motherland, or
mother earth”. They wanted to use the term ecological feminism to indicate that women are natural
environmentalists, by virtue of being born as women.

CULTURAL FEMINISM
Cultural feminism mainly describes about “female
nature or female essence” that attempts to revalue
and redefine attributes ascribed to the feminine
character. This female essence includes a greater
emphasis on cooperation, relationships, and peace;
also referred to as an ‘ethic of care’. Cultural feminism
tries to find differences between men and women,
based on biological differences in reproductive
capacity. It seeks to validate feminine attributes that
have been systematically undervalued within a
patriarchal society. It also highlights the conflict
between women and men, but reflects the variation
of culturally created rather than biologically innate. In 1972, socialist feminist Elizabeth Diggs, used
the label “cultural feminism” for applying it to radical feminism for minimizing gender differences. In
1975, the radical feminist critic, Brooke Williams, for the first time, introduced the term “cultural
feminism” to describe the depoliticization of radical feminism.

Cultural feminism refers to a philosophy that men and women have different attitudes to the world
around them, and that greater value should be applied on the way women approach the world. In
some cases, a woman’s way of looking at the world is actually superior to that of men. Cultural
feminism is a theory that praises the positive aspects of women. Aim of it is for the creation of
women-only spaces, such as women’s bookstores, art, gyms or health clubs, periodicals, etc. to
generate a new, patriarchy-free consciousness society, and to engage in radically different ways of
living. Cultural feminists have seen an
opportunity to rebuild society completely
with female-centered institutions and
power structures. The basic principle of
cultural feminism is that women have a
different culture and even a different
epistemology, such as different ethics,
ideas, and language from men. It attempts
to unite all women in a common
sisterhood, regardless of ethnicity, race,

16
class or age. The goal of it is to create and maintain healthy relationships and environments that are
free of masculinity values.

Many scholars have observed that when liberal and radical feminism faces difficulties to achieve
gender equality in the society; cultural feminism shows ways of thinking, acting, and speaking as
distinctive and inherent qualities to build a woman’s shared culture. Cultural feminists combat
woman oppression through means of the creation and sustainability of separate woman-centered
spaces that “promote female biology as the basis of women’s power”. They look to find solutions for
how the worst offenses of patriarchy can be mitigated. Cultural feminists identified women as
superior/preferable to qualities identified with men, whether the qualities are products of nature or
culture. Male characteristics are harmful to society, and female characteristics bring benefit for the
society. For example, less aggression among nations would lead to less war and conflict.

BLACK FEMINISM
Black feminism emerged in the 1970s to
produce social thought for opposing
oppression. It is an intellectual, artistic,
philosophical, and activist practice grounded
in black women’s lived experiences, a
political struggle to combat oppression faced
by any women of colour. It provides the idea
that “black women are inherently valuable,
that black women’s liberation is a necessity
not as an adjunct to somebody else’s but
because our need as human persons for autonomy”. It has many terminologies, such as Black
Canadian feminism, African-American feminism, African feminism, etc. Black feminism is formed to
empower Black women towards fighting for their unique cause for social justice. In 1989, scholar
Kimberlé Crenshaw (1959-) coined the term “Black Feminism” in her doctoral thesis, where she
argues that a Black woman has to deal with the concept of the “double bind” which refers to being
Black and being a woman.

Black feminism plays an important role in the formation and stability of black families in the USA. It
emphasizes on the issue of racism, that is a main cause of oppression to women of color, and black
women face different forms of oppression that is racist and sexist. Majority of the African black
women were brought to the USA to work as slaves, in a form of oppression. In the American society,
black women and white women have different status. The lives of African-American women have
been critically affected by racism, sexism, classism, and ethnicism. All African Black women have
experienced living in a society that
devalues them, and most of them are
victim of much oppressions, such as child
rape, child marriage, female genital
mutilation, etc. Backgrounds for Black
women are challenging because, they are
considered to be less than human, and
“there is no more isolated subgroup in
academe than Black women”. In the
society, ethnicity is determined by cultural

17
factors, such as nationality, language and culture; while race is
determined by physical characteristics, such as skin color, facial
features, and hair type. Black feminists have expanded the notion
“Black Feminism” to include issues of class and sexuality, in
addition to race and gender. Maria Stewart (1803-1879),
Sojourner Truth (1797-1883), and Frances E. W. Harper (1825-
1911), agitated for the rights of women of color. In 1851,
Sojourner Truth, a former slave who became a public speaker
later, told that when white women were struggling for voting and
labour rights; black women struggled to be seen themselves as
human, i.e., in the same society, black women face a radically
different situation than white women. Feminist African-American
writer Alice Walker coined the term “Womanism” in 1979 to
describe an intersectional alternative to white feminism. In 1982,
her novel “The Colour Purple” was published where she used
“Womanist” to describe the black feminist movement.

POST MODERN FEMINISM

Recently the impact of postmodern thinking on
feminist theory and politics has created
substantial debate. After the development of
“The Women Liberation Movement and Black
Liberation Movement”, worldwide divorce rate
has increased alarmingly; consequently, increases
the miseries of the children of the divorced
families, and also STDs and HIV/AIDS have spread
globally. In this stage, feminists face the new
dilemma, and begin to rethink male and female
relations. They have allowed the feminist
movement to protect social rights and interests of
women, and side by side they have questioned those feminists who are trying to subvert the
traditional family model. In this movement, there is a great change of the previous debates within
feminism and feminists reveal that language is what constructs gender.

Multiple factors, such as class, race, ethnicity and sexuality collectively are responsible to construct
the identity ‘woman’. Neither of any one of these factors is solely responsible for women oppression,
nor would handling any one of these provide a solution to the problem of suppression of women. In
the 21st century we are living in the postmodern world, but prejudice and discriminatory attitudes
about women have not changed much over a period of time.

Postmodern feminism, also called the third-generation feminism, is a combination of

poststructuralism, postmodernism, and French feminism. These three terms have emerged
spontaneously, and also their themes overlap and philosophies seem contradictory. On the other
hand, postmodern feminism has an uneasy relationship between feminism and postmodernism;
because some feminists believe postmodern thoughts weaken the attacks that feminist theory
attempts to create, while others are in favour of the union. Postmodern feminists believe that there
is a multiplicity of women and women’s movements, which represent diverse and divergent

18
interests. They recommend a wide range of social forms and behaviours, and argue against a
relatively uncomplicated account of oppression based on patriarchy. Postmodern feminism is the
destabilization of what is considered normal or natural in relation to gender. Postmodern feminism
rests heavily on social constructivist theories arguing that gender is a construct of language, or
discourse. It seeks to develop a new paradigm of social criticism that does not rely on traditional
philosophical reinforcements and emphasizes the relations of the feminism issues to the languages,
sex, and power.

Postmodern feminists reject a common feminist position and support a plurality of perspectives on
knowing, such as essentialism, philosophy, and universal truths. They believe that knowledge is
always provisional, open-ended, and relational, and each woman can capture the truth differently.
They also want to remove gender inequality from the society. They focus on how discourse in society
creates social assumptions about how women should be treated. They have followed the ways in
which sexual difference is shaped by language and culture. They believe that truth is not absolute
and merely constructed by individuals, groups, culture, and language.

Ending The Patriarchy: A

Pathway to Equality and
Regeneration
In the ongoing dialogue about societal structures and
human rights, the concepts of patriarchy, matriarchy,
and feminism have emerged as focal points for
discussion and advocacy. As we navigate the
complexities of gender inequality and social justice, it
becomes imperative to explore the transition from
patriarchal norms to matriarchal paradigms,
highlighting the benefits of such a shift for the rights of
women and girls, as well as for all living beings as a
whole.

The patriarchy thrives on dominating not only women

and girls but also extends its grasp to nature and animals. Rooted in systems of power and control,
patriarchal norms perpetuate exploitation across various
spheres of life. Women and girls are subjected to
systemic discrimination, limited opportunities, and
gender-based violence, reinforcing the patriarchal grip
on power dynamics. Similarly, nature and animals are
often exploited and commodified within patriarchal
frameworks, with environmental degradation and
species extinction being symptomatic of this exploitative
mentality.

Understanding Patriarchy: A System of

Exploitation and Domination
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Patriarchy, deeply entrenched in many societies
worldwide, is a system characterized by male
dominance and the subjugation of women and
marginalized genders. Under patriarchy, power,
resources, and decision-making authority are
disproportionately concentrated in the hands of
men, while women and non-binary individuals face
systemic discrimination, violence, and oppression.

At its core, patriarchy perpetuates exploitative

structures that prioritize the interests of men at the
expense of women’s rights and autonomy. From
unequal pay and limited access to education to restricted reproductive rights and gender-based
violence, the consequences of patriarchy are far-reaching and pervasive, impacting the lives of
women and girls across various facets of society.

The patriarchal system intertwines with capitalism, fostering wealth inequality and exploiting
workforces and people in the relentless pursuit of economic gain. Under patriarchal capitalism,
power and resources are concentrated in the hands of a privileged few, while the majority face
exploitation and marginalization. This exploitative framework perpetuates wage inequality,
precarious working conditions, and systemic oppression, reinforcing hierarchies of power and
control. Moreover, the relentless drive for profit often comes at the expense of environmental
degradation and ecological destruction, as corporations prioritize short-term gains over long-term
sustainability.

The patriarchy perpetuates unsustainable

population growth at the expense of the
rights of women and girls, including their
bodily autonomy and freedom to choose
their own family size. In patriarchal
societies, women are often denied access
to comprehensive reproductive
healthcare and family planning resources,
limiting their ability to make informed
decisions about their bodies and futures.
This lack of autonomy not only
perpetuates cycles of poverty and
inequality but also exacerbates environmental pressures associated with population growth. By
challenging patriarchal norms and advocating for women’s rights to reproductive choice and
healthcare, we can work towards a more sustainable future that respects the autonomy and agency
of all individuals.

Transitioning to Matriarchy: Embracing

Regeneration and Equality
Contrary to patriarchy, matriarchy offers a
transformative vision centered on

20
regeneration, equality, and collective well-being. In a matriarchal society, power is distributed more
equitably among individuals, with an emphasis on collaboration, empathy, and nurturing
relationships.

It’s a common misconception to think of matriarchy solely as women-led, but in truth, matriarchy
represents a broader paradigm of partnership and equality rather than a direct mirror image of
patriarchy. Matriarchy emphasizes shared power, collaboration, and nurturing relationships, moving
away from hierarchical dominance seen in patriarchy. This shift towards a partnership-oriented
society aims to dismantle oppressive structures and promote collective well-being, benefiting both
women and men alike. In embracing empathy and cooperation, matriarchy fosters inclusivity and
empowerment, where individuals’ rights and dignity are upheld and respected.

One of the key benefits of transitioning to a matriarchal paradigm is the dismantling of oppressive
structures that perpetuate gender inequality and injustice. By prioritizing empathy and cooperation
over dominance and competition, matriarchy fosters a culture of inclusivity and empowerment,
where the rights and dignity of all individuals are upheld and respected.

Moreover, matriarchy embraces values of reciprocity and community, challenging the prevailing
ethos of greed and individualism that characterizes patriarchal societies. Instead of prioritizing
material wealth and status, matriarchy emphasizes the importance of sharing resources, uplifting
marginalized voices, and fostering solidarity within communities.

Empowering Women and Girls: A Cornerstone of

Matriarchal Societies
Central to the transition to matriarchy is the empowerment of women and girls, who have
historically been marginalized and disenfranchised under patriarchal systems. By recognizing and
affirming the rights of women to education, economic opportunities, and political representation,
matriarchy creates pathways for gender equity and social justice.

Investing in women’s rights and agency not only

benefits individuals but also contributes to broader
societal progress and prosperity. Studies have shown
that when women are empowered, communities
thrive, with improvements in health outcomes,
educational attainment, and economic development.

Moreover, matriarchal societies prioritize the

protection and promotion of reproductive rights,
ensuring that women have control over their bodies
and reproductive choices. By guaranteeing access to
comprehensive healthcare, family planning services,
and reproductive education, matriarchy acknowledges
the intrinsic value of women’s autonomy and bodily
integrity.

In a matriarchal society, where values of regeneration, reciprocity, and community prevail, we

envision a paradigm shift towards becoming better stewards of the Earth, animals, and the
environment. Matriarchal principles prioritize interconnectedness and harmony with nature,
recognizing the intrinsic value of all living beings and ecosystems. By fostering a deep sense of

21
respect and reverence for the natural world, matriarchal societies uphold the rights of nature,
advocating for its protection and preservation.

Furthermore, in such societies, the rights of animals are safeguarded, with practices such as factory
farming and animal testing replaced by ethical and sustainable alternatives that prioritize
compassion and well-being.

Additionally, matriarchal societies prioritize universal human rights, ensuring that all individuals,
regardless of gender, race, or socioeconomic status, are treated with dignity and respect. By
embracing matriarchal values and principles, we can cultivate a future where humans live in
harmony with nature, animals, and each other, fostering a more just, equitable, and sustainable
world for generations to come.

Challenging Patriarchal
Norms: Building a Future
of Equality and Justice
As we envision a future
rooted in equality and
justice, it is essential to
challenge patriarchal
norms and systems that
perpetuate gender-
based discrimination and
violence. The transition
from patriarchy to
matriarchy represents a
fundamental shift in
societal values and
structures, with
profound implications for human rights and the rights of women and girls. By elevating feminist
movements and advocating for the principles of matriarchy, we can pave the way for a more
inclusive, equitable, and sustainable world for generations to come.

22
 CONCLUSION
Globally women are oppressed, abused, marginalized,
and deprived from their legal rights because of their
gender. From the ancient time, feminism has always
existed but its organized form has seen around the 17th
century in England. During the second wave of feminism
giving rise to several political ideologies, such as liberal
feminism, Marxist feminism, socialist feminism, radical
feminism, and ecofeminism are raised to protest against
the sexist ways of men to the private lives of women.
Liberal feminists have stressed for equal rights and
benefits both for men and women. Radical feminists
think that patriarchy is the basis of women oppression.
Marxist feminists consider that capitalism and patriarchy
are the root causes of women oppression, which is
analysed only through the class paradigm, and
housework should be valued in society. Socialist
feminists stress on socialism, and both class and gender
factors to be taken into account; patriarchy and
capitalism should be articulated. Ecofeminism views
patriarchy, and focuses ecology and feminism into one point. Later, during the third wave for a global
recognition, some new ideologies, such as cultural feminism, black feminism, and postmodern
feminism are presented. Cultural feminism refers to a philosophy that men and women have
different attitudes, and tries to create of women-only spaces. Black feminism is emerged to empower
black women toward fighting for their unique cause for social justice. Postmodern feminists think
heterosexual society with male dominance
is a source of women oppression.

23
All the feminism’s basic slogan is creation of a just society, the protection of freedom and liberty, the
creation of a class-less society, and the creation of a gender-neutral society respectively. At present,
educational equality is accepted in many nations and females have gained many societal
responsibilities worldwide. But they have not gained same advantages globally as like males to play a
vital role in the courts and public administration. We hope that in near future the justice, freedom,
liberty and gender equality will be established in all societies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to all
those who have provided their invaluable support and encouragement
throughout the course of this project.

First and foremost, I would like to thank my project supervisors, [Supervisor's

Name], for their expert guidance and continuous support. Their insights,
constructive feedback, and encouragement helped me refine my ideas and
ensured the project's success. I truly appreciate their time, patience, and
dedication in helping me navigate the challenges of this project.

I would also like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my family and friends for
their constant emotional support and encouragement. Their belief in me has
been a great source of strength throughout this project. Whenever I faced
doubts or difficulties, their words of reassurance and love reminded me to stay
focused and keep pushing forward.

Lastly, I extend my appreciation to anyone who, although not directly involved

in the project, has influenced or inspired my work. Whether through casual
conversations, shared knowledge, or indirect encouragement, their
contributions have made a meaningful impact on my journey.

In conclusion, this project would not have been possible without the support
and guidance of so many wonderful individuals. I am truly thankful to each and
every one of you for your role in making this achievement possible.

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