Review

Recent Advances on The Applications of Phase Change

Materials in Cold Thermal Energy Storage: A Critical Review
Farhan Lafta Rashid 1 , Mudhar A. Al-Obaidi 2,3 , Anmar Dulaimi 4,5 , Luís Filipe Almeida Bernardo 6, * ,
Zeina Ali Abdul Redha 7 , Hisham A. Hoshi 8 , Hameed B. Mahood 4,9 and Ahmed Hashim 10

1 Petroleum Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Kerbala, Karbala 56001, Iraq;
[email protected]
2 Technical Instructor Training Institute, Middle Technical University, Baghdad 10074, Iraq;
[email protected]
3 Technical Institute of Baquba, Middle Technical University, Baquba 32001, Iraq
4 College of Engineering, University of Warith Al-Anbiyaa, Karbala 56001, Iraq;
[email protected] or [email protected] (A.D.); [email protected] (H.B.M.)
5 School of Civil Engineering and Built Environment, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 2ET, UK
6 Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
7 Energy Engineering Department, University of Baghdad, Baghdad 10011, Iraq;
[email protected]
8 Electromechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology, Baghdad 10066, Iraq;
[email protected]
9 Centre of Sustainable Cooling, School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham,
Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
10 Department of Physics, College of Education for Pure Sciences, University of Babylon, Babylon 51002, Iraq;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Cold thermal energy storage (CTES) based on phase change materials (PCMs) has shown
great promise in numerous energy-related applications. Due to its high energy storage density,
CTES is able to balance the existing energy supply and demand imbalance. Given the rapidly
Citation: Rashid, F.L.; Al-Obaidi,
M.A.; Dulaimi, A.; Bernardo, L.F.A.;
growing demand for cold energy, the storage of hot and cold energy is emerging as a particularly
Redha, Z.A.A.; Hoshi, H.A.; Mahood, attractive option. The main purpose of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of the
H.B.; Hashim, A. Recent Advances current research progress on the utilisation of PCMs in CTES. The greatest difficulties associated
on The Applications of Phase Change with using PCMs for CTES are also examined in this overview. In this regard, a critical evaluation
Materials in Cold Thermal Energy of experimental and numerical studies of the heat transfer properties of various fundamental fluids
Storage: A Critical Review. J. Compos. using PCMs is conducted. Specifically, several aspects that affect the thermal conductivity of PCMs
Sci. 2023, 7, 338. https://doi.org/ are investigated. These factors include nanoparticle-rich PCM, a form of encapsulated PCM, solids
10.3390/jcs7080338
volume percentage, and particle size. Discussions focus on observations and conclusions are drawn
Academic Editors: Francesco from conducted studies on PCMs used in CTES. Based on the findings of this study, a set of plausible
Tornabene and Farooq Sher recommendations are made for future research initiatives.

Received: 8 July 2023

Keywords: cold thermal energy storage (CTES); phase change materials (PCMs); heat transfer; cold
Revised: 10 August 2023
applications; review
Accepted: 16 August 2023
Published: 18 August 2023

1. Introduction
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. Fossil fuels are an important source of energy worldwide, accounting for 85.5% of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. total energy consumption. However, if humanity continues to use fossil fuels at this
This article is an open access article consumption level, a range of environmental problems will arise including shifting weather
distributed under the terms and
patterns and global temperature increases [1]. Therefore, with the development of energy-
conditions of the Creative Commons
saving technologies, the use of new energy and renewable energy has become the focus
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
of global attention. The energy supplied during the day and night varies greatly, which
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
is detrimental to the reliability of the energy transfer system [2]. The most pressing issue
4.0/).

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7080338 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jcs

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 2 of 40

is how to utilise the excess electricity generated at night during the day so that no stress
builds up. Refrigeration equipment is one of the remedies to this issue and has developed
into a crucial component of reducing the effect of the current crisis on the world’s electricity
supply due to its distinctive influence on load shifting. Energy storage technology not only
speeds up the uptake of new and renewable energy sources but also works well to correct
the disparity between supply and demand in the market [3].
To find a solution to this problem, the intelligent use of thermal energy storage (TES)
is essential. The technology behind TES has been extensively studied [4,5] and can be
classified into three distinct thermal categories: chemical heat, latent heat, and sensible
heat. Sensitive heat is the most common form of heat. Besides sensible heat and chemical
heat, another way to efficiently utilise energy is to focus on the latent heat generated by
phase change materials (PCMs) [6,7]. The phase transition process caused by changes in
ambient temperature employs the latent heat method to store and release thermal energy.
Constant temperature can be maintained by isothermal absorption and release of heat; this
enables efficient use of energy in space and time [8–11]. PCMs are widely used in a wide
range of energy conversion fields such as waste heat recovery, Li-ion batteries, building
insulation, and solar energy storage [12–23].
The most familiar types of PCMs are eutectic and organic and inorganic. The term
“eutectic PCM” refers to mixtures of two or more substances (organic and inorganic PCMs)
that, when mixed in a particular proportion, have a lower melting point than any of the
constituent parts. They experience a rapid and distinct phase transition while maintaining
a steady temperature and releasing or absorbing thermal energy. Moreover, eutectic
PCMs can be made so as to generate favourable properties such as a lower melting point
or a specific phase change temperature. Salt hydrates, such as calcium chloride and
sodium sulphate, are typical examples of eutectic PCMs [24]. Organic PCMs are single-
component materials made from organic chemicals or hydrocarbons. Compared to eutectic
PCMs, they may display a wider melting temperature range, but they have distinct phase
change temperatures. Examples of organic PCMs frequently utilised for cold thermal
energy storage include paraffin waxes and fatty acids [25]. Furthermore, solid inorganic
phase change materials exhibit elevated latent heat values and high melting temperatures,
resulting in effective energy storage and release during phase changes [26]. In this regard,
PCMs have been successfully used in different sectors of CTES. The following demonstrates
a number of studies encountered during the evaluation of PCMs in CTES.
Veerakumar and Sreekumar (2015) [27] provided a detailed assessment of current
breakthroughs and previous research projects using PCMs for cold thermal energy storage.
These commercially available PCMs are classified and listed according to their melting
point and latent heat of fusion. These PCMs have the potential to be utilised as materials
for storing cold energy. Furthermore, methods to improve the thermo-physical properties
of PCMs, including encapsulation, increased heat transfer, incorporation of nanostructures,
and shape stability, were analysed and discussed in this paper. Corrosion of building
materials was also found to affect the stability of the structure.
Nie et al. (2020) [28] revised TES for cold energy storage, focusing on a variety of
cryogenic liquid–solid PCMs. A basic overview of the PCM classification system was
presented. Recent technologies used to improve PCM performance, in particular their
low thermal conductivity, liquid PCM leakage, and limiting their use in TES refrigeration
applications with high degrees of sub-cooling, were intensively discussed in this study.
Several strategies for improving thermal performance were compared, such as using
composite PCMs and massive networks. The application of modelling and experimental
research in the field of refrigeration was also highlighted. A number of applications for
cold energy storage currently in use have been outlined such as air conditioning and
free cooling.
Selvnes et al. (2021) [29] provided a comprehensive overview of recent advances
and research surveys on CTES using PCMs in refrigeration systems. They focused on the
latest developments in the field. The study included the classification of many types of
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 3 of 40

PCMs used in a wide set of applications ranging from air conditioning (AC) (20 ◦ C) to
food freezing (below −60 ◦ C). Besides providing a list of PCMs currently on the market
that operate between 10 ◦ C and −65 ◦ C, the authors provided an indication of the thermo-
physical characteristics of PCMs that may affect the behaviour and related approaches to
characterise PCMs.
Radouane (2022) [30] focused on discussing the fabrication methods of PCMs including
encapsulation, hybrid confinement, and polymerization in addition to addressing the
enhancement of the thermal conductivity of composite PCMs. The author illustrated the
successful utilisation of PCMs in different sectors of energy storage, energy conversion,
and thermal management.
Despite the existence of the above attempts to evaluate the contribution of PCMs in
the field of CTES, we think that a presentation with a critical assessment of the most recent
innovations of utilising PCMs in different applications of CTES has not been conducted
in one package yet. Thus, this study intends to fill this gap in the literature by revising
the most relevant challenges of deploying PCMs in CTES and then overviewing the most
successful associated studies between 2017 and 2022. The covered studies are categorized
into experimental, numerical, and experimental and numerical classes. As a direct result,
this study intends to discuss the recent advances in the implications of PCMs in different
sectors of CTES including buildings, air conditioning and refrigeration, food storage, cold
chain applications, and other associated applications. A thorough understanding of the
issues in question is necessary to make future progress in the field and to provide actionable
answers to questions that arise in many different contexts. Researchers will benefit from
this study by gaining a better understanding of the various improvements in PCMs in cold
thermal energy storage that still have room for improvement. The recommendations of this
study may guide other investigations in the future.

2. Conceptual Challenges of Using PCMs in Different Applications of CTES

Because of their capacity to store and release energy during phase transitions, PCMs
have demonstrated significant potential in a variety of CTES applications. However, their
use encounters conceptual difficulties that must be overcome in order to maximise usefulness
and efficiency. Some of the most significant conceptual issues are as follows [31–35]:
• It is critical to select the appropriate PCM for a given application. PCMs are classified
as organic, inorganic, or eutectic mixes, with varying melting and freezing points and
latent heat capacities. Choosing a PCM that meets the temperature demands of the
application while preserving stability and reliability might be difficult;
• To minimise corrosion problems in low-temperature applications, the construction
materials of the container used to hold diverse eutectic PCMs for thermal energy
storage must be considered;
• To minimise leakage and assure compatibility with current equipment, PCMs are
often enclosed within containers. Finding acceptable encapsulating materials that
are PCM-compatible, thermally conductive, and chemically stable might be difficult.
Furthermore, the encapsulation technique should not interfere with heat transfer
during phase change;
• The rate of heat transmission during the charging (melting) and discharging (solidifi-
cation) processes determines the effectiveness of PCM-based thermal storage devices.
PCMs have a lower and poor thermal conductivity than traditional materials such
as metals. This might result in poorer heat transfer rates and might require the use
of higher thermal conductivity structures or composites, complicating the process of
design and production even more. In this regard, high heat transfer rates can be diffi-
cult to achieve, particularly for large-scale applications, because they may necessitate
sophisticated heat exchanger designs and adequate interaction with current systems;
• During phase transitions, some PCMs experience considerable volume changes, which
can cause mechanical stress and distortion of the incarceration structures. Controlling
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 4 of 40

these volume variations in order to prevent system damage across several phase
change cycles necessitates careful design and research;
• During their lifetime, PCMs are predicted to go through several phase change cycles.
A crucial problem is guaranteeing the PCM’s stability and strength across many cycles
without a substantial drop in effectiveness.
Overcoming these conceptual issues would necessitate collaborative efforts from
material scientists, engineers, thermodynamics experts, and system designers. Solving
these obstacles will result in enhanced effectiveness and broader adoption of phase change
materials in cold thermal energy storage applications.

3. Applications of PCM-Based CTES and Imperative Improvements

The improvement of energy systems that use cold thermal energy requires CTES. Peak
load shifting is one of the most often utilised CTES applications. The cold thermal energy
produced at nighttime could be preserved and utilised to satisfy the peak cooling demand
throughout the day. It is primarily utilised in air conditioning and refrigeration systems. In
this instance, the CTES aids in reducing the refrigeration plant’s size and cooling capacity,
enabling the system to run as efficiently as possible and lowering operating costs.

3.1. Building
There is no doubt that the climate system is warming. Since 1850, none of the previous
decades have been warmer than the most recent three, and greenhouse gas (GHG) concen-
trations have grown. The transition to low-carbon and/or carbon-neutral technology may
be accelerated by society lowering the carbon intensity of energy services. Buildings will
be crucial since they produce a third of all GHG emissions, along with around 40% of the
world’s energy needs and 25% of its water [36]. The following discusses in detail the most
successful studies published between 2019–2022 that encountered the utilisation of PCMs
in CTES of buildings.
A 40% solution of tetra-n-butylammonium bromide (TBAB) was selected by
Zou et al. (2019) [37] as a cold energy medium for production because of its appropri-
ate phase transition temperature of 11.81 ◦ C and high latent heat (211.9 J/g). Furthermore,
the use of Na2 HPO4 .12H2 O as a nucleating agent reduced the amount of super-cooling
experienced by the material; this improved crystallization behaviour could be seen under
light microscopy. It has been shown that dimensionally stable TBAB hydrate/fumed silica
(SiO2 ) CPCMs can be fabricated and described. The results show that the CPCM containing
30% SiO2 has a high latent heat of 134 J/g, a low undercooling of 2.01 ◦ C, and excellent
shape stability, as shown in Figure 1. There is also no liquid leakage above the melting
temperature of 8.33 ◦ C, which is a significant advantage.
Philip et al. (2020) [38] created a eutectic PCM for thermal energy storage. They
prepared, analysed, and experimented with a new binary eutectic combination. DSC
determines the thermo-physical properties of the resulting co-crystals. An 80:20 eutectic
mixture of cetyl and lauryl alcohol melts at 20.01 ◦ C with a latent heat of 191.63 J/g.
Thermal conductivity was shown to be very good. Figures 2–4 show good results for the
thermal stability and reliability testing using the novel combination of accelerated thermal
cycling and thermo-gravimetric analysis. The smaller peak near the freezing point of the
mixture indicates phase transformation (solid to solid). In the case of cetyl alcohol, one
endotherm is observed on heating and two exotherms are observed on cooling the sample.
Cetyl alcohol as observed from the DSC curve shows a melting point at 51.5 ◦ C and freezing
temperatures of 43.97 and 38.09 ◦ C (Figure 3). Two exotherms are seen on the cooling curve.
The first peak depicts liquid-to-rotator phase transition at 43.97 ◦ C and the second peak
shows the rotator phase transition to a crystalline structure at 38.09 ◦ C.
J. Compos. Sci.
J. Compos. 2023,
Sci. 7, 7,
2023, x FOR
338 PEER REVIEW 5 of5 of
4540

Figure 1. Effect of Na2HPO4·12H2O content on the super-cooling degree of TBAB hydrate [37].

Philip et al. (2020) [38] created a eutectic PCM for thermal energy storage. They
prepared, analysed, and experimented with a new binary eutectic combination. DSC
determines the thermo-physical properties of the resulting co-crystals. An 80:20 eutectic
mixture of cetyl and lauryl alcohol melts at 20.01 °C with a latent heat of 191.63 J/g.
Thermal conductivity was shown to be very good. Figures 2–4 show good results for the
thermal stability and reliability testing using the novel combination of accelerated ther-
mal cycling and thermo-gravimetric analysis. The smaller peak near the freezing point of
the mixture indicates phase transformation (solid to solid). In the case of cetyl alcohol,
one endotherm is observed on heating and two exotherms are observed on cooling the
sample. Cetyl alcohol as observed from the DSC curve shows a melting point at 51.5 °C
and freezing temperatures of 43.97 and 38.09 °C (Figure 3). Two exotherms are seen on
the cooling curve. The first peak depicts liquid-to-rotator phase transition at 43.97 °C and
the second
Figure
Figure 1.1.
Effect
peak
Effect
ofof
Na
shows
Na
2HPO
the
2 HPO
4·12H
rotator
4 ·12H
phase
O content
2O 2content
transition
on on
thethe
to a crystalline
super-cooling
super-cooling degree
degree
structure
of TBAB
of TBAB
athydrate
38.09[37].
hydrate
°C.
[37].

Philip et al. (2020) [38] created a eutectic PCM for thermal energy storage. They
prepared, analysed, and experimented with a new binary eutectic combination. DSC
determines the thermo-physical properties of the resulting co-crystals. An 80:20 eutectic
mixture of cetyl and lauryl alcohol melts at 20.01 °C with a latent heat of 191.63 J/g.
Thermal conductivity was shown to be very good. Figures 2–4 show good results for the
thermal stability and reliability testing using the novel combination of accelerated ther-
mal cycling and thermo-gravimetric analysis. The smaller peak near the freezing point of
the mixture indicates phase transformation (solid to solid). In the case of cetyl alcohol,
one endotherm is observed on heating and two exotherms are observed on cooling the
sample. Cetyl alcohol as observed from the DSC curve shows a melting point at 51.5 °C
and freezing temperatures of 43.97 and 38.09 °C (Figure 3). Two exotherms are seen on
the cooling curve. The first peak depicts liquid-to-rotator phase transition at 43.97 °C and
the second peak shows the rotator phase transition to a crystalline structure at 38.09 °C.

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 45

Figure 2. DSC
Figure DSC curve
curveof
oflauryl
laurylalcohol
alcohol[38].
[38].

Figure 2. DSC curve of lauryl alcohol [38].

DSCcurve
Figure3.3.DSC
Figure curveofof cetyl
cetyl alcohol
alcohol [38].
[38].
 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 6 of 40
Figure 3. DSC curve of cetyl alcohol [38].

Figure 4.4.DSC
Figure DSCcurve of lauryl
curve alcohol–cetyl
of lauryl alcoholalcohol
alcohol–cetyl eutecticeutectic
mixture [38].
mixture [38].
Jebasingh and Arasu (2020) [39] developed a eutectic PCM suitable for low-temperature
Jebasingh
applications and
such as Arasu
building (2020)
cooling based[39]
on an developed
85:15 mass ratioa ofeutectic PCM
organic fatty suitable
acids,
low-temperature
capric acid (CA), and applications
myristic acidsuch
(MA)asandbuilding cooling
investigated theirbased
thermalonand
an chemical
85:15 mass rati
organic fatty acids,
stability properties usingcapric acid (CA),
DSC, Fourier and Infrared
Transform myristic acid (MA)
spectroscopy and thermo-
(FT-IR), investigated t
gravimetric
thermal and analysis (TGA),
chemical and a KD2
stability Pro thermal
properties usingproperty analyser. Transform
DSC, Fourier The fabrication
Infrared s
steps are shown in Figure 5. Thermal cycling tests were also performed using
troscopy (FT-IR), thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA), and a KD2 Pro thermal prop the apparatus
shown in Figure 6. These properties were compared with fatty acids. DSC testing showed
analyser. The fabrication steps are shown in Figure 5. Thermal cycling tests were
a latent heat capacity of 156.99 J/g and a phase transition temperature of 20.86 ◦ C. The
. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
performed using the apparatus shown in Figure 6. These properties
thermal conductivity of the CA–MA PCM is 0.152 W/m K. According to TGA studies, were compared w
fatty acids.
eutectic PCMs DSC testing showed
are thermally a latent
stable. The binaryheat capacity
eutectic of 156.99
combination J/g and astable
is chemically phase transi
temperature of 20.86 °C. The thermal conductivity of the CA–MA PCM is 0.152 W/m
according to FT-IR.
According to TGA studies, eutectic PCMs are thermally stable. The binary eutectic c
bination is chemically stable according to FT-IR.

Figure
Figure5.
5. Diagrammatic representation
Diagrammatic representation of CA–MA
of CA–MA eutectic
eutectic mixture mixture[39].
preparation preparation [39].
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 Figure 5. Diagrammatic representation of CA–MA eutectic mixture preparation [39]. 7 of 40

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure6.6.The
Thetime
timecurve
curvefor
formelting
meltingand
andfreezing
freezingofofCA
CAand
andCA–MA
CA–MAatatthe
theinitial
initialconditions:
conditions: (a)
Melting and (b) Freezing [39].
(a) Melting and (b) Freezing [39].

Alkhwildiet
Alkhwildi etal.
al.(2020)
(2020) [40]
[40] proposed
proposed aageothermal
geothermalheat heatpump
pump (GHP)
(GHP) system
systemwith an an
with
integrated hydrate PCM storage tank for cold climate buildings, as shown
integrated hydrate PCM storage tank for cold climate buildings, as shown in Figure 7. in Figure 7. PCM
storage
PCM reduced
storage heat load
reduced peaks
heat loadand annual
peaks andheat load imbalances
annual heat load in a ground source
imbalances heat
in a ground
exchanger
source heat (GHX), assuming
exchanger (GHX), proper installation.
assuming properIninstallation.
heating mode,In the heat pump
heating mode,collects
the heat
heat from a closed loop to solidify the hydrated PCM. The heat of fusion is stored in PCM
pump collects heat from a closed loop to solidify the hydrated PCM. The heat of fusion is
tanks and the GHX for daily and seasonal consumption. Electricity meter data from an
stored in PCM tanks and the GHX for daily and seasonal consumption. Electricity meter
apartment complex was utilised to forecast space heating, cooling, and hot water demand
data from an apartment complex was utilised to forecast space heating, cooling, and hot
to test the proposed method. The data were used in a 20-year hourly dynamic life cycle
water demand
simulation to test
model the proposed
in TRNSYS softwaremethod.
to createThe data were
an optimal used in a of
arrangement 20-year
GHX andhourly
PCMdy-
namic
storagelifedesigned
cycle simulation
to balancemodel
annual inthermal
TRNSYS software
soil to create
loads. The an optimal
simulation findingsarrangement
indicate
ofthat
GHX and PCM storage designed to balance annual thermal soil loads.
the utilization of PCM tanks has an enormous opportunity to reduce the size of the The simulation
findings indicate
investigated GHX; that the utilization
nevertheless, owing oftoPCM tanks hasheating
the hysteretic an enormous opportunity
and cooling to re-
profiles, the
system is dependent on the PCM melting temperature. Figure 8 shows that of all GHX
designs, a PCM melt temperature of 27 ◦ C resulted in the smallest PCM tank capacity.
A new shape-stabilized composite PCM with promising thermal characteristics and an
efficient encapsulation method was suggested by Yang et al. (2020) [41]. The use of lauryl
alcohol, stearic acid, and nanoparticles denoted as LA–SA/Al2 O3 to create a binary eutectic
PCM with suitable thermal characteristics for buildings was first investigated. Then, the
synthesised LA–SA/Al2 O3 was absorbed into ceramsite and then encapsulated with a
styrene–acrylic emulsion and dry cement powder for shape stability. The best ratio of
LA–SA/Al2 O3 is 82 wt.% LA + 18 wt.% SA with 0.5 wt.% Al2 O3 nanoparticles, with a melt-
ing temperature of 21.3 ◦ C and a latent heat of 205.9 kJ/kg. The mechanical performance
of the CPCM embedded in concrete with 15 wt.% LA–SA/Al2 O3 /C is satisfactory, and
the material showed promise for moderating the effects of the external environment on
inside temperatures and decreasing the load on HVAC systems. However, as the PCM’s
doping level increases, the visible density of the material drops, resulting in a decrease in
the maximum stress.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 45

duce the size of the investigated GHX; nevertheless, owing to the hysteretic heating and
cooling
duce theprofiles, theinvestigated
size of the system is dependent on the PCM
GHX; nevertheless, owingmelting temperature.
to the hysteretic Figure
heating and 8
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 coolingthat
shows profiles, the system
of all GHX is dependent
designs, a PCM melton the PCM melting
temperature of 27 °Ctemperature. Figure
resulted in the 8
8 of smallest
40
showstank
PCM thatcapacity.
of all GHX designs, a PCM melt temperature of 27 °C resulted in the smallest
PCM tank capacity.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. A
Figure 7. representation
representation of
A representationof the
ofthe storagetank
thestorage
storage tankwith
tank with
with encapsulated
encapsulated
encapsulated PCM
PCM
PCM[40]. [40].
[40].

Figure 8. Influence of tank volume on GHX size for different designs of different melting tempera-
Figure 8. Influence of tank volume on GHX size for different designs of different melting temper-
tures8.[40].
Figure Influence of tank volume on GHX size for different designs of different melting temper-
atures [40].
atures [40].
Wang et al. (2021) [42] created PCM compositions to reduce phase transition tempera-
A to
ture new 20 shape-stabilized
to 25 ◦ C and improve composite PCMand
heat storage with promising
release. thermalMgCl
After adding characteristics
2 .6H2 O as a
and
A new shape-stabilized
an nucleating
efficient encapsulation composite PCM with promising thermal characteristics
agent, CaCl2 .6H2 O/MgCl2 .6H2 O composite phase change materials (CPCMs) of
method was suggested by Yang et al. (2020) [41]. The use and
an efficient
lauryl alcohol,encapsulation
stearicSrCl
acid, method
and was was suggested by asYang et al. 2(2020) [41]. PCM.
The use of
were synthesised. 2 .6H 2 O nanoparticles
added denoted
to reduce the LA–SA/Al
sub-cooling O3inorganic
of to create a binary
lauryl
eutecticalcohol, stearic
PCM with
Hydroxyethyl acid,
suitable
cellulose and nanoparticles
thermal
(HEC) denoted
characteristics
was added as LA–SA/Al
for material
to improve buildings O to create
was first investigated.
recyclability.
2 3 Thermo-a binary
eutectic
Then, thePCM
gravimetric with suitable
analysis
synthesised and
LA–SA/Al thermal
differential characteristics
scanning
2O3 was forceramsite
calorimetry
absorbed into buildings
(DSC) were
andwas first
performed
then investigated.
on the
encapsulated
CPCM
Then,
with athe to determine
styrene–acrylic the phase
synthesised emulsion
LA–SA/Al transition
2O3dry
and was temperature,
absorbed
cement thermal
intofor
powder properties,
ceramsite degree
and then
shape stability. The of sub-
encapsulated
best ratio
with a styrene–acrylic emulsion and dry cement powder for shape stability. The best ratio
 (CPCMs) were synthesised. SrCl2.6H2O was added to reduce the sub-cooling of inorganic
PCM. Hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC) was added to improve material recyclability.
Thermo-gravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were per-
formed on the CPCM to determine the phase transition temperature, thermal properties,
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338
degree of sub-cooling, and thermal cycling properties. The phase transition 9temperature of 40

of the PCM equilibrated by 35% MgCl2.6H2O, 5% SrCl2.6H2O, and 0.5% HEC with
CaCl2.6H2O is 23 °C. The PCM possesses a latent heat of phase change of 130 J/g. Figure 9
cooling, and thermal cycling properties. The phase transition temperature of the PCM
shows the standard deviation of latent heat recovery against the number of melting–
equilibrated by 35% MgCl2 .6H2 O, 5% SrCl2 .6H2 O, and 0.5% HEC with CaCl2 .6H2 O is
freezing cycles. This in turn shows that CaCl2.6H2O with a sealed hermetic pan has
23 ◦ C. The PCM possesses a latent heat of phase change of 130 J/g. Figure 9 shows the
maximum latent heat
standard deviation recovery
of latent without
heat recovery a considerable
against the number of change throughout
melting–freezing the cycles.
cycles.
These
This inresults are compared
turn shows significantly
that CaCl2 .6H against CaCl2.6H2O with a small opening in the
2 O with a sealed hermetic pan has maximum latent heat
cove thatwithout
recovery shows aaconsiderable
reduction ofchange
around 41% of the
throughout the latent
cycles. heat
Theserecovery
results areafter 100 melting–
compared
freezing cycles.
significantly against CaCl2 .6H2 O with a small opening in the cove that shows a reduction
of around 41% of the latent heat recovery after 100 melting–freezing cycles.

Figure 9. Latent heat recovery of the pure material and CPCMs after typical cycle times [42].
Figure 9. Latent heat recovery of the pure material and CPCMs after typical cycle times [42].
Dong et al. (2022) [43] measured the temperature and phase transition of PCM spheres.
Dong etmodel
The physical al. (2022) [43] measured
of the PCM the temperature
sphere was created andusing
and validated phase
CFDtransition
simulationof PCM
spheres.
tools and The physical data.
experimental model ofvalidated
The the PCMmodelsphere was created
simulates and validated
the thermal using
behaviour of a CFD
tank filled with
simulation toolsPCM
andspheres. At the data.
experimental same The
time,validated
the effectsmodel
of PCMsimulates
ball diameters (90
the thermal be-
and 60 mm) and cold water flow were investigated. Smaller PCM ball diameter
haviour of a tank filled with PCM spheres. At the same time, the effects of PCM ball and faster
chilled water flow rate increase freezing speed. The ideal phase change ball diameters are
diameters (90 and 60 mm) and cold water flow were investigated. Smaller PCM ball
90 and 60 mm, and the optimal input flow rate is 2.196 m/h.
According to the study cited in Table 1, a particular PCM’s phase transition temper-
ature was reached at 23 ◦ C. Additionally, for all of the GHX configurations, the lowest
PCM tank capacity was reached at a temperature of 27 ◦ C. Additionally, by increasing the
flow velocity of cold water, a smaller PCM ball diameter enables a greater freezing rate to
be attained.
Table 1 summarises previous studies on the utilisation of PCM for cold storage in
buildings, including the type of PCM, studied parameters, and findings.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 10 of 40

Table 1. A summary of studies on the utilisation of PCMs for cold storage in buildings.

Authors (Year)
Configuration/Composition Study Type Studied Parameters Highlighted Results/Findings
[Reference]
The form-stable performance of
Effect of the composite PCM with
Na2 HPO4· 12H2 O 30 percent SiO2 was
content on the outstanding, and there was no
Zou et al. TBAB hydrate/fumed silica super-cooling degree of liquid leakage at temperatures
Experimental
(2019) [37] (SiO2 ) composite PCM. TBAB hydrate and the over the melting point (8.33 ◦ C).
nucleating agent on The latent heat of the composite
crystalline behaviour of PCM was 134 J/g, and the
TBAB hydrate. super-cooling degree was only
2.01 ◦ C.
The 80:20 eutectic composition
of lauryl alcohol and cetyl
A eutectic mixture of lauryl Effect of mixing lauryl alcohol with melting
Philip et al.
alcohol and cetyl alcohol, with Experimental alcohol and temperature of 20.01 ◦ C and
(2020) [38]
the ratio being 80:20. cetyl alcohol. latent heat of 191.63 J/g is fit for
use in cold thermal
energy storage.
A mass ratio of 85:15 between
Effect of the mixing ratio The phase change temperature
capric acid (CA) and myristic
Jebasingh et al. on latent heat capacity, was found to be 20.86 ◦ C, and
acid (MA), both of which Experimental
(2020) [39] thermal conductivity, the latent heat capacity was
belong to the class of organic
and stability. found to be 156.99 J/g.
fatty acids.
The lowest PCM tank capacity
Low- to moderate-temperature Tank volume, melt
Alkhwildi et al. Experimental was attained with a
salt hydrate phase temperature, and
(2020) [40] and Numerical temperature of 27 ◦ C for all of
change material. GHX size.
the GHX setups.
The best ratio of LA–SA/Al2 O3
A binary eutectic PCM of The influence of mass is 82 wt.% LA + 18 wt.% SA
lauryl alcohol, stearic acid, and fraction of with 0.5 wt% Al2 O3
Yang et al. [41] Experimental
nanoparticles denoted as LA–SA/Al2 O3 on the nanoparticles, with a melting
LA–SA/Al2 O3 . mechanical properties. temperature of 21.3 ◦ C and a
latent heat of 205.9 kJ/kg.
At a temperature of 23 ◦ C, the
SrCl2 .6H2 O was added to
phase transition temperature of
PCMs (CPCMs) of the
the PCM was achieved by
Wang et al. CaCl2 .6H2 O/MgCl2 .6H2 O Effect of adding MgCl2
Experimental combining 35% MgCl2 .6H2 O,
(2021) [42] binary salt system in order to 6H2 O and SrCl2 6H2 O.
5% SrCl2 .6H2 O, and 0.50% HEC
lower the super-cooling degree
in a solution that was balanced
of inorganic PCM.
by CaCl2 .6H2 O.
A lower PCM ball diameter
Ball diameter of PCM allows for a higher freezing rate
Dong et al. Cold energy storage tank filled Experimental
and flow rate of to be obtained, which may be
(2022) [43] with multiple PCM balls. and Numerical
chilled water. accomplished by increasing the
flow velocity of cold water.

3.2. Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

Luxurious and contemporary living standards are made possible by high energy use.
More than half of the power used by building service systems goes toward air conditioning
systems. Traditional air conditioning systems rely on non-renewable energy sources for
operation. In contrast, the use of clean energy may solve the issues of energy consumption
and environmental degradation. The use of a solar-powered air conditioning system has,
therefore, been selected as a preferred refrigeration technology. Because solar energy
is sporadic and has a low energy density, it is effective to utilise the extra solar energy
produced throughout the day and store it for use at night, or to store solar energy during
the summer and use it in the winter, when energy production and consumption are not
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 11 of 40

coordinated. It is suggested to use a solar energy storage system. Some research carried
out theoretical analysis and experiments to address relevant issues [44]. The next sections
elaborate on the most successful studies published between 2018–2022 that discussed the
utilisation of PCMs in CTES for air conditioning and refrigeration.
Jiang et al. (2018) [45] investigated the heat transport and cold storage performance
of a falling film type. The experimental setup combines falling film heat transfer and cold
storage with solid–liquid PCMs. Each horizontal column has 36 copper pipes. The copper
pipes are coated with a hydrophilic coating to minimize the solid–liquid contact angle. The
heat transfer fluid is water, a mixture of capric acid, lauric acid, and oleic acid with a liquid
film. The Reynolds number range of liquid film was from 100–500 and the phase transition
temperature was around 20 ◦ C. Cold energy regenerators provide high heat transfer and
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 45
cold storage with low pump capacity. Figure 10 shows that lowering the Reynolds number
of the film improves refrigeration performance.

Figure
Figure10.10.
Temperature
Temperatureassessment of of
assessment calculated andand
calculated experimental values
experimental for for
values 36th36th
tubetube
in cold
in cold energy
energy storage process [45].
storage process [45].

Said and
Said andHassan
Hassan(2018) [46] [46]
(2018) developed a newamethod
developed to integrate
new method thermal energy
to integrate thermal energy
storage made using PCMs into conservative AC systems to improve cooling capacity.
storage made using PCMs into conservative AC systems to improve cooling capacity.
This technology integrates a phase change board with an AC capacitor. The charging and
This technology integrates a phase change board with an AC capacitor. The charging
discharging process is affected by the plate configuration of the PCM, the air intake ve-
and discharging process is affected by the plate configuration of the PCM, the air intake
locity, and the temperature. It is also shown how these settings affect the performance of
velocity,
air and the
conditioners. temperature.
Figure 11 presentsItthe
is variation
also shown how
of the these settings
coefficient affect the
of performance performance
(COP)
ofofthe
airAC
conditioners.
system against Figure 11 presents
operational time forthe variation
various PCM of theconfigurations
plate coefficient ofwhile
performance
using different inlet air temperatures of 35 °C, 40 °C, and 45 °C. Also, Figure 12 shows the
COP of a conventional AC system without using a PCM heat exchanger for the consid-
ered parameters. Specifically, the COP decreases with time and inlet air temperature.
Furthermore, all configurations of the AC unit with PCM have COP values that are
higher than those of the conventional AC unit at any given instant. Furthermore, at var-
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 12 of 40

(COP) of the AC system against operational time for various PCM plate configurations
while using different inlet air temperatures of 35 ◦ C, 40 ◦ C, and 45 ◦ C. Also, Figure 12
shows the COP of a conventional AC system without using a PCM heat exchanger for the
considered parameters. Specifically, the COP decreases with time and inlet air temperature.
Furthermore, all configurations of the AC unit with PCM have COP values that are higher
than those of the conventional AC unit at any given instant. Furthermore, at various
configurations, the performance coefficient of an air conditioning unit using PCMs at an
inlet air temperature of 35 ◦ C outperforms the conventional one by 14%, 13%,
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 ofand
45 12% at

inlet velocities of 0.96 m/s, 1.2 m/s, and 1.44 m/s, respectively.

Figure 11. Cont.

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 13 of 40
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 45

Figure
Figure 11. Variationofofcoefficient
11. Variation coefficient of of performance
performance against
against timetime
at V =at0.96
V =m/s
0.96 m/s
and and different
different inlet air inlet air
temperatures: (a)
temperatures: (a)35 ◦ C,
35°C, (b) °C,◦ C,
4040
(b) andand(c) 45
(c)°C ◦ C [46].
45[46].

Sunxi et
Sunxi et al.
al.(2019)
(2019)[47][47]used
used an an
octanoic
octanoicacid–myristic
acid–myristicacid binary eutecticeutectic
acid binary mixturemixture
(OA–MA) as the base liquid. A PCM with a unique shape of
(OA–MA) as the base liquid. A PCM with a unique shape of OA–MA/expanded graphite OA–MA/expanded graphite
(EG) (OA–MA:EG
(EG) (OA–MA:EG ==93:7) 93:7) waswasformed
formed by uniform
by uniform absorption of OA–MA
absorption of OA–MAinto theinto
porous
the porous
structure of EG. Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) shows
structure of EG. Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) shows the microstructure. the microstructure. DSC DSC
measured the phase change temperature (PCT) and latent heat. The Hot Disk thermal
measured the phase change temperature (PCT) and latent heat. The Hot Disk thermal
constant analyser analysed the thermal conductivity. OA–MA/EG stability was verified
constant analyser analysed the thermal conductivity. OA–MA/EG stability was veri-
by 100 thermal cycling tests. The transition temperature of the OA–MA phase is 7.1 °C
fied
and◦ by 100 thermal
its thermal cycling is
conductivity tests.
0.2971TheW/m transition temperature
K. The transition of the of
temperature OA–MA
the OA–phase is
7.1
MA/EG phase EG is 6.8 °C, the latent heat is 136.3 J/g, and the thermal conductivity is of the
C and its thermal conductivity is 0.2971 W/m K. The transition temperature
OA–MA/EG ◦ C, the latent heat is 136.3 J/g, and the thermal conductivity is
0.9975 W/m K,phase whichEG is 6.8
is 2.36 times that of OA–MA. Thermal cycling studies demonstrate
0.9975 W/mdurability
the thermal K, whichofisthe 2.36 times thatPCM.
OA–MA/EG of OA–MA. Thermal cycling studies demonstrate
the thermal
Xie et al.durability
(2020) [48]of the OA–MA/EG
prepared a unique type PCM.
of composite PCM using MEG to adsorb
Xie et
a K2HPO al.2O–NaH
4.3H (2020) [48]
2PO4prepared
.2H2O–Na2aS2unique
O3.5H2O–H type2Oofeutectic
composite PCM an
salt using using MEG to adsorb a
impregnation
Ktechnique.
2 HPO 4 .3H As
2 shown
O–NaH in
2 Figure
PO 4 .2H 12,
2 the
O–Na eutectic
S O
2 2 3 salt
.5H 2adsorption
O–H 2 O capacity
eutectic of
salt MEG
using at
an120 min
impregnation
was 75.33% higher than that of unmodified expanded graphite (EG).
technique. As shown in Figure 12, the eutectic salt adsorption capacity of MEG at 120 min The phase transition
temperature
was 75.33% higher of the composite
than that of phase change material
unmodified expanded(PCM) is −5.30
graphite °C, the
(EG). Thesignificant
phase transition
temperature of the composite phase change material (PCM) is −5.30 ◦ C, conduc-
latent heat is 161.8 kJ/kg, and the super-cooling degree is 1.83 °C. The thermal the significant
tivity of the composite PCM is 13.3 times higher than that of the eutectic salt. In addition,
latent heat is 161.8 kJ/kg, and the super-cooling degree is 1.83 ◦ C. The thermal conductivity
thermal cycling tests show that thermal reliability is quite high, as shown in Figure 13.
of the composite PCM is 13.3 times higher than that of the eutectic salt. In addition, thermal
cycling tests show that thermal reliability is quite high, as shown in Figure 13.
Karthikeyan et al. (2021) [49] prepared a combination of capric, lauric, and oleic acids
to produce low-temperature PCMs for refrigeration applications. As shown in Figure 14,
an experimental study was conducted in a double-helix thermal storage unit (CTESU) to
analyse the charge and discharge behaviour of the combination of capric, lauric, and oleic
acid. It was found that the melting time of the PCM is meaningfully longer at heat transfer
fluid (HTF) inlet temperatures of 30 ◦ C and 35 ◦ C than at a HTF inlet temperature of 40 ◦ C.
Similarly, the melt rate increases with increasing HTF flow rate. As shown in Figure 15,
when the HTF inlet flow rate was increased from 2 L/min to 3 L/min at a temperature of
30 ◦ C, the melt rate decreased by 3.5%, while the HTF inlet flow rate decreased by 10%.
The melting rate exists at a temperature of 40 ◦ C.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 45
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 14 of 40
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 45

Figure 12.
Figure
Figure Schematic
12.
12. Schematicdiagram
Schematic diagramof
diagram ofthe
of preparation
thepreparation ofthe
preparationof
of thecomposite
the composite
composite PCM
PCM
PCM [48].
[48].
[48].

Figure13.
Figure 13. DSC
DSC curves
curves of
ofthe
thecomposite
compositePCM
PCMat
at1st,
1st,200th,
200th,and
and400th
400ththermal
thermalcycles
cycles[48].
[48].
Figure 13. DSC curves of the composite PCM at 1st, 200th, and 400th thermal cycles [48].
Karthikeyan
To reduce energy et al. consumption,
(2021) [49] prepared Ghodrati a combination
et al. (2022) of [50]
capric, lauric,
used bothand wateroleicand
ac-
idsKarthikeyan
to produce
ethylene et al. were
which (2021)
glycol low-temperature [49]PCMs
consideredprepared a combination
forpotential
as refrigeration
PCMs forof capric,
applications.
cold Aslauric,
energy shown
charge and oleic ac-
instorage.
Figure
ids14,
toan
Accordingexperimental
produce study
low-temperature
to this, when waswater
using conducted
PCMs inrefrigeration
forPCM,
as the a double-helix
the system thermal
onlystorage
applications.
used 63% unit
Asofshown (CTESU)
in Figure
the available
to analyse
energy duringthe charge
the first and
100 discharge
min, but behaviour
without the of
PCM, the combination
the system
14, an experimental study was conducted in a double-helix thermal storage unit (CTESU) usedof capric,
about lauric,
90.9% of and
the
available
oleic acid.energy
It was after
found the first
that 100
the min.
melting If the
time water
of theis replaced
PCM is
to analyse the charge and discharge behaviour of the combination of capric, lauric, and with ethylene,
meaningfully the
longer system
at heat
loses
oleic only
transfer
acid. It35.97%
fluidwas(HTF)of the
foundinlettotal energy
temperatures
that the in the
melting first
of time
30 500
°Cof
and min; °Cthe
35PCM
the thanremaining
at a HTFcharge
is meaningfully is retained.
inlet temperature
longer at heat
of 40Selvnes
°C. et al.
Similarly, (2022)
the melt[51]ratereport on
increases the scheme
with and
increasing performance
HTF
transfer fluid (HTF) inlet temperatures of 30 °C and 35 °C than at a HTF inlet temperature flow of
rate. CTES.
As shownTheir in
process consists ofthe
a pillow plate flow
heat exchanger (PP-HEX)from immersed in storage medium
of 40 °C. Similarly, the melt rate increases with increasing HTF flow rate. As showna in
Figure 15, when HTF inlet rate was increased 2 L/min to 3 L/min at
of a low-temperature
temperature of 30 °C, PCM.
the melt The charge–discharge
rate decreased by 3.5%, performance
while the of HTFa CTES device
inlet flow ratewith
de-
Figure 15, when the HTF inlet flow rate was increased from 2 L/min to 3 L/min at a
plates
creasedin by
a tank
10%.wasThethoroughly
melting rate tested using
exists carbon dioxide
at a temperature of (CO 2 ) as the refrigerant and a
40 °C.
temperature
commercially ofavailable
30 °C, the PCMmelt withrate decreased
a phase change bytemperature
3.5%, whileofthe −9.6HTF◦ C. inlet
FromflowFigure rate
16,de-
creased by 10%. The melting rate exists at a temperature of 40 °C.
it can be seen that, at the same refrigerant evaporation temperature, comparing 15 mm and
30 mm plate spacing designs, the 15 mm charge time is faster than the 30 mm charge time.
This is due to the fact that employing the 30 mm design doubles the theoretical potential
storage capacity of the CTES unit. Compared to the 15 mm design, the 30 mm configuration
 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 15 of 40

about 150% longer to charge than the 15 mm configuration at −13 ◦ C. The measured
takes
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 45
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 45
charge time increase at 30 mm is approximately 161% higher than expected for a TCO2
evaporation temperature of −20 ◦ C.

Figure 14.14.
Figure
Figure Pictorial view
14.Pictorial
Pictorial of (a)
view
view CTESU,
ofof
(a)(a) (b) double-helix
CTESU,
CTESU,(b)(b) coil,coil,
double-helix
double-helix and (c)and
coil,andlayout
(c)(c) of theoflocation
layout
layout thethe
of of ther-
location of of
location ther-
mocouples
mocouplesin CTESU
in CTESU [49].
[49].[49].
thermocouples in CTESU

Figure 15. Influence

Figure of (a)
15. Influence of HTF inletinlet
(a) HTF temperature andand
temperature (b)(b)
flowrate during
flowrate thethe
during charging process
charging [49].
process [49].
Figure 15. Influence of (a) HTF inlet temperature and (b) flowrate during the charging process [49].
To reduce energy consumption, Ghodrati et al. (2022) [50] used both water and eth-
ylene glycol whichenergy
To reduce were considered as potential
consumption, Ghodrati PCMs for cold
et al. (2022) [50]energy charge
used both storage.
water and eth-
According to this, when using water as the PCM, the system used only 63% of
ylene glycol which were considered as potential PCMs for cold energy charge storage. the
 charge time. This is due to the fact that employing the 30 mm design doubles the
retical potential storage capacity of the CTES unit. Compared to the 15 mm design, t
mm configuration takes about 150% longer to charge than the 15 mm configuration a
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338
°C. The measured charge time increase at 30 mm is approximately 161% higher tha
16 of 40
pected for a TCO2 evaporation temperature of −20 °C.

Figure16.
Figure The influence
16.The influence ofof
refrigerant evaporation
refrigerant temperature
evaporation for the 15for
temperature mmthe
and15
30 mm
mm config-
and 30 mm c
urations with 8 kg/min refrigerant mass flow rate on (a) the charging time and (b) mean
urations with 8 kg/min refrigerant mass flow rate on (a) the charging time and (b) mean pre pressure
loss [51].
loss [51].
Zheng et al. (2022) [52] constructed an air-cooling system for phase change microcap-
sule cold storage. The encapsulated phase change material was combined with thermally
conductive water to form a microcapsule suspension. Three highly stable microcapsule
PCM suspensions were prepared. Analysis determined the thermo-physical properties of
the suspensions. The cold storage performance of the phase change microcapsule suspen-
sions was tested in the cold storage of the composite systems. The optimal composition
ratios of the base fluid were 99.1% deionized water, 0.2% SDS, 0.2% xanthan gum, and 0.5%
NaCl. The capacity of the phase change cold storage is 1.5 times that of the ice cold storage,
and it is more powerful overall.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 17 of 40

Table 2 summarises previous studies on the utilization of PCM for cold storage in air
conditioning and refrigeration, including the type of PCMs, studied parameters, and findings.

Table 2. A summary of studies on the utilisation of PCMs for cold storage in air conditioning
and refrigeration.

Authors (Year)
Configuration/Composition Study Type Studied Parameters Highlighted Results/Findings
[Reference]
The cold energy regenerator has excellent
Jiang et al. Mixture of decanoic acid, Experimental and Pumping power and film heat transfer performance as well as cold
(2018) [45] lauric acid, and oleic acid. Numerical Reynolds number. storage properties while using a minimal
amount of pumping power.
At various configurations, the
Configurations of PCM
PCM-equipped air conditioner
plates, as well as the
Integrating plates of PCM outperforms the conventional unit by
Said et al. velocity and temperature
with a condenser of an air Experimental 14%, 13%, and 12%at inlet velocities of
(2018) [46] of the air that enters the
conditioning unit. 0.96 m/s, 1.2 m/s, and 1.44 m/s,
PCM plates, are all taken
respectively for an inlet air temperature
into consideration.
of 35 ◦ C.
The OA–MA/EG composite PCM
PCM of OA–MA and EG
Sunxi et al. Effect of adding EG into demonstrated a high degree of thermal
with the ideal mass ratio Experimental
(2019) [47] OA–MA. resilience when subjected to thermal
of 93:7 (OA–MA:EG).
cycle testing.
K2 HPO4 ·3H2 O–
NaH2 PO4·2H2 O– Tests with a thermal cycle duration of
Xie et al. Mass fraction and thermal
Na2 S2 O3 ·5H2 O–H2 O Experimental 400 times indicated that the composite
(2020) [48] cycles.
eutectic salt/MEG PCM had outstanding thermal reliability.
composite PCM.
When the flow rate of HTF during the
discharging process was increased, the
melting rate increased by 16 percentage
points in comparison to lower flow rates.
On the other hand, despite the overall
Karthikeyan Capric–lauric acid/oleic The inlet temperature and
Experimental rise in flow rates, the charge rate did not
et al. (2021) [49] acid combination. flow rate of HTF.
shift considerably. When compared to
the HTF intake temperature of −15 ◦ C,
the solidification of PCM at temperatures
of −5 and −10 ◦ C requires much
more time.
When water is used as the PCM for the
first 100 min, the system only uses 63% of
its total energy; however, when there is
no PCM present, the system loses
Ghodrati et al. Two PCMs of water and Effect of using water and roughly 90.9% of its total energy after the
Experimental
(2022) [50] ethylene glycol. ethylene glycol as PCMs. first 100 min. When water is replaced
with ethylene, the first 500 min of the
reaction only results in the release of
35.97% of the system’s total
potential energy.
The use of a plate pitch of 30 mm
produced the greatest mean discharge
Effect of pitch of pillow rate and the highest total discharged
Commercial PCM with plate heat exchanger on energy throughout the course of the cycle
Selvnes et al.
phase change temperature Experimental charging and discharging with 9.79 kilowatts and 17.04 kilowatt
(2022) [51]
of −9.6 ◦C. of PCM, refrigerant hours, respectively. Charging time for
evaporation temperature. the 30 mm design was risen by about
150% compared to when it was used at
an evaporation temperature of −13 ◦ C.
To create phase change
microcapsule suspensions 99.1% deionized water, 0.2% SDS, 0.2%
with mass fractions of 5%, xanthan gum, and 0.5% NaCl made the
Effect of adding wt.% of
Zheng et al. 10%, and 15%, PCMs were optimum base liquid. System cooling
Experimental SDS, xanthan gum, and
(2022) [52] encapsulated and then capacity dropped. Phase change cold
NaCl to deionized water.
combined with water and storage offers 1.5 times the capacity of ice
had strong thermal cold storage and performs better overall.
conductivity.

This review, in regard to various works of research and summarised in Table 2, shows
that cold energy regenerators have high heat transfer performance and cold storage capabil-
 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 18 of 40

ities while requiring a low amount of pumping power. Additionally, a further experiment’s
usage of 30 mm plate pitches produced the greatest mean discharge rates and total energy
released. Additionally, the melting rate rose by 16 percentage points in contrast to lower
flow rates when the rate at which HTF was discharged was increased.

3.3. Food Storage

For the greatest preservation of food’s natural colour, appearance, taste, nutritional
content, and other attributes, quick freezing has long been acknowledged as the optimum
technique of food preservation. Food may be frozen more quickly and with fewer ice
crystals thanks to this procedure. As a result, less time is needed to reach the threshold
where the creation of ice crystals is at its peak, and water is prevented from recrystallizing
and cell membranes from being damaged (squeezing or rupturing). Commercially frozen
foods are often “rapid frozen” utilizing a variety of tools, including fluidized freezing beds,
air blast freezers (ABFs), and plate freezers [53]. The coming sections present a rich analysis
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 45
of the most successful studies published in 2021 that discuss the utilisation of PCMs in
CTES for food storage.
Tas and Unal (2021) [54] developed a nano-hybrid of PCMs and halloysite nanotubes
process
(HNT) results
to produce in the formation
nano-fillers withofthermal
a mixture of HNT/PCM
buffering capabilities.nano-hybrids with 17,
As shown in Figure durable
shapes.
HNTs wereMeltsoaked
compounding was PCMs
with polymeric used such
to encapsulate
as PEG400 and thePEG600.
combination of HNT/PEG400
This process results
in the
and formation ofnano-compounds
HNT/PEG600 a mixture of HNT/PCM nano-hybrids with
in a polyethylene (PE)durable
matrix.shapes. Melt com-
This resulted in flex-
pounding
ible was usedfilms.
nanocomposite to encapsulate the combination sheets
Frozen nanocomposite of HNT/PEG400
thawed atand roomHNT/PEG600
temperature at a
nano-compounds
much slower rate than in a polyethylene (PE) matrix.
bare PE sheets. The gap This
is resulted
less thanin half.
flexible
In nanocomposite
addition, the nano-
films. Frozen nanocomposite sheets thawed at room temperature at a much slower rate
composite film was 18 and 20 min more effective in delaying the freezing and heating of
than bare PE sheets. The gap is less than half. In addition, the nanocomposite film was 18
cold
and samples,
20 min more respectively, compared
effective in delaying to theand
the freezing normal
heatingPE film.
of cold Individually,
samples, respec- the
HNT/PEG400 and HNT/PEG600 nano-hybrids show melting transitions
tively, compared to the normal PE film. Individually, the HNT/PEG400 and HNT/PEG600 in the tempera-
ture range of −22.0–6.4
nano-hybrids °C and
show melting −6.0–19.0
transitions °C, temperature
in the respectively.range
On the
of −other ◦
hand,
22.0–6.4 the melt
C and
transition ◦
−6.0–19.0of C, therespectively.
HNT/polyethylene
On the other glycol
hand,(PEG)-M nano-hybrid
the melt transition of the has a wide temperature
HNT/polyethylene
glycol
range from(PEG)-M
−21.8 nano-hybrid
°C to 21.7 °C,has
asashown
wide temperature
in Figure 18.range from −21.8 ◦ C to 21.7 ◦ C, as
shown in Figure 18.

Figure
Figure Schemeof
17.Scheme
17. of nanocomposite
nanocomposite films
films[54].
[54].

Zhan et al. (2021) [55] investigated the preparation, characterization, and modification
of PCMs. Organic PCMs were formed by adding D-(+)-glucos, glycine, and D-sorbitol to
1% NaCl. A simple experimental method was developed to prepare organic PCMs for cold
chain logistics. A solution of 5% glycine and 1% NaCl constitutes a good PCM. This PCM
has a phase transition temperature of −5.94 ◦ C and a thermal conductivity of 0.58 W(mK).
After 50 cycles, the phase transition temperature of the solution was −6.72 ◦ C. After
50 cycles, the activation energy (∆H) in 5% glycine–1% NaCl was 275.79 J/g, i.e., 15.63 J/g
less than before cycling. The ∆H and phase transition temperature of 5% glycine–1% NaCl
did not change considerably before and after cycling.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 19 of 40

Figure 17. Scheme of nanocomposite films [54].

Figure 18.
18. DSC
DSCcurves
curvesof
ofHNT/PCM
HNT/PCM Nano-hybrids
Nano-hybrids[54].
[54].

Table et
Zhan 3 summarises
al. (2021) [55]previous studies
investigated theon the utilisation
preparation, of PCM in food,
characterization, andincluding
modifica-the
type
tion ofof PCMs,
PCMs.studied
Organic parameters,
PCMs were andformed
findings.by adding D-(+)-glucos, glycine, and
D-sorbitol to 1% NaCl. A simple experimental method was developed to prepare organic
PCMs3.for
Table cold chain
A summary of logistics.
studies onAthe
solution of 5%
utilisation glycine
of PCMs for and
cold 1% NaCl
storage of constitutes
food. a good
PCM. This PCM has a phase transition temperature of −5.94 °C and a thermal conductiv-
Authors (Year) ity of 0.58 W(mK). After 50 cycles, theParameters
phase transition temperature
Configuration/Composition Study Type Studied Highlightedof the solution was
Results/Findings
[Reference]
−6.72 °C. After 50 cycles, the activation energy (ΔH) in 5% glycine–1% NaCl was 275.79
HNTs that have been
J/g, i.e., 15.63 J/g less than before cycling. The ΔH and Individual HNT/PEG400 and HNT/PEG600
phase transition temperature of 5%
Tas and Unal impregnated with nano-hybrids showed melting transitions
glycine–1% Experimental
NaCl did not PCM
change impregnation
considerably ratios.
before and after cycling.
(2021) [54] polymeric PCMs, as well between 22.0 C and 6.4 ◦ C and 6.0 ◦ C and
◦
as PEG400 and PEG600. 19.0 ◦ C, respectively.
After going through 50 cycles, the solution
containing 5% glycine and 1% NaCl had a
phase transition temperature of −6.72 ◦ C and
Adding edible additives
an activation energy (∆H) of 275.79 J/g.
Zhan et al. (D-(+)-glucos, glycine, and The wt.% of glycine–1%
Experimental Before and after cycling, there is not a
(2021) [55] D-sorbitol) to a NaCl solution.
discernible change in either the glycine
1% NaCl solution.
concentration or the temperature at which
the phase transition occurs in the solution
that contains 5% glycine and 1% NaCl.

Regarding the various works of research, including those in Table 3, a solution with
5% glycine and 1% NaCl exhibited a phase transition temperature of −6.72 ◦ C and an
activation energy (∆H) of 275.79 J/g after 50 cycles. In addition, neither the temperature at
which the phase transition takes place in the solution containing 5% glycine and 1% NaCl
nor the glycine content are noticeably different before and after cycling.

3.4. Cold Chain Applications

Fresh fruit and vegetable consumption has dramatically increased in recent years.
It is commonly known that a cold chain may extend the period of time that fresh goods
and medications can be stored while maintaining their functionality and freshness and
lowering the danger of quality deterioration. According to reports, a third of the fresh food
produced worldwide is lost owing to inappropriate temperature storage and transportation.
The effective utilization of a cold chain, especially during transit, might help solve the
problem by ensuring the safety and quality of the food [56]. The following sections detail
the most effective experimental and numerical studies published between 2019–2022 that
used PCMs in CTES for cold chain applications.
Song et al. (2019) [57] developed a shape-stabilized PCM with dodecane as a PCM
and expanded graphite (EG) as a skeleton. Heat treatment and DSC testing indicated that
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 20 of 40

16 wt.% was the ideal EG concentration for the composite. Figure 19 shows the shape-stable
PCM made of dodecane and expanded graphite (EG). Figure 20 shows that the shape-stable
dodecane/EG PCM has a phase transition temperature of −9.67 ◦ C and a latent heat of
151.7 J/g. SEM, FT-IR, and specific surface area analyser data showed that the dodecane
was uniformly packed in the EG pores under physical exposure. The thermal conductivity
of dodecane/EG is 15 times that of dodecane. Thermal performance testing confirmed
J.J.Compos.
Compos.Sci.
Sci.2023,
2023,7,7,x xFOR
FORPEER
the improved thermal conductivity of the PCM composite. A numerical model
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 22 22 45of
of of 45
the
dodecane/EG PCM passive energy storage system was built, and the simulation results
were consistent with experimental results.

Figure 19. Preparation route of dodecane/EG PCMs [57].

Figure 19.
Figure Preparationroute
19.Preparation routeofofdodecane/EG
dodecane/EG PCMs
PCMs [57].
[57].

Figure
Figure20.20.
DSC curves
DSC of dodecane/EG
curves PCMs
of dodecane/EG [57]. [57].
PCMs
Figure 20. DSC curves of dodecane/EG PCMs [57].
Xiaofeng
Xiaofeng and
and Xuelai
Xuelai (2020)
(2020) [58][58] developed
developed a multi-temperature
a multi-temperature PCMPCM cooler. cooler.
The The
phase Xiaofeng
transitionand Xuelai
temperatures
phase transition temperatures of PCM1(2020)
of [58]
PCM1 developed
(n-octanoic a multi-temperature
acid–myristic acid PCM
complex)
acid–myristic acid complex) and cooler. and The
PCM2
phase
PCM2 transition
(potassium
(potassium temperatures
sorbate–water
sorbate–water of
complex) PCM1
complex) (n-octanoic
areare
7.17.1
and and−2.5 acid–myristic
◦
−2.5 C,
°C,the
thelatent acid
latentheat complex)
heat values and
values are 146.1
PCM2
146.1
and and (potassium
256.2 256.2
J/g,J/g, sorbate–water
andand thethe thermal
thermal complex) are 7.1
conductivities
conductivities are and
are −2.5and
0.2832
0.2832 °C,
andthe latent
0.9427
0.9427 W/m
W/mheat K,values
K, respec- are
respectively.
146.1
tively. and 256.2 J/g,
The manufacture
The manufacture and the thermal
of multi-zone
of multi-zone conductivities
coolers
coolers waswas are 0.2832
combinedusing
combined and 0.9427
usingvacuum W/m
vacuum insulation. K, respec-
insulation. The
tively.
The
melting The
melting manufacture
process
process of of of multi-zone
PCMs
PCMs was
was coolersby
investigated
investigated was combined
bymeans
means using vacuum insulation.
ofofaathree-dimensional
three-dimensional un-
unsteady
The
steady
model.melting
model. process
GoodGoodsupply of
supply PCMs was(GSP)
practice
practice (GSP) investigated
has has
led led toby
to the the means ofBox
Insulated
Insulated aBox
three-dimensional
Temperature
Temperature TestTestun-
system.
steady
system. model.
Incubator Good supply
temperature practice (GSP) has led to the Insulated Box Temperature Test
Incubator temperature zoneszones 2 (middle
2 (middle zone) zone)
and and 3 (low3 (low
zone) zone)
cancan remain
remain coldcold
for 13 h
system.
for 13 14 Incubator
h and temperature zones 2 (middle zone) and 3 (low zone) can remain cold
14 h, respectively.
and h, respectively.
for To
13 hachieve
and 14 h, respectively.
To achieveefficient
efficientcold
coldstorage
storagefor forcold
coldchain
chaintransportation,
transportation,Liu Liuetetal.al.(2022)
(2022)[59][59] pro-
proposedTo achieve
a unique efficient
saline cold storage
phase change for cold chain
material gel transportation,
(BPCMG) by Liu eutectic
loading et al. (2022) saline[59]
posed a unique saline phase change material gel (BPCMG) by loading eutectic saline into a
proposed a unique saline phase change material gel (BPCMG)
into a superabsorbent polymer (SAP). Potassium chloride (KCl) and ammonium chloride by loading eutectic saline
into4Cl)
(NH a superabsorbent
dissolve in water polymer
to form(SAP). Potassium
a eutectic PCM brine.chloride This(KCl) and ammonium
is because the phase transi-chloride
(NH
tion 4Cl) dissolve
temperature ofinthe
water
PCMtoisform
closea to
eutectic
21 °C, PCM
making brine. Thisfor
it ideal is because the phase
transporting transi-
biological
tion temperature
samples and aquatic of the PCM isthat
products close to 21 °C,
require making it ideal
refrigeration. for transporting
The resulting BPCMGs biological
show
samples
that and aquatic
super-cooling products
has been that require
eliminated, refrigeration.
they have a high latentThe heat
resulting BPCMGs
of 230.62 show
J/g, they
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 21 of 40

superabsorbent polymer (SAP). Potassium chloride (KCl) and ammonium chloride (NH4 Cl)
dissolve in water to form a eutectic PCM brine. This is because the phase transition temper-
ature of the PCM is close to 21 ◦ C, making it ideal for transporting biological samples and
aquatic products that require refrigeration. The resulting BPCMGs show that super-cooling
has been eliminated, they have a high latent heat of 230.62 J/g, they have a high thermal
conductivity of 0.589 W/m K, and they have a high cost-effectiveness of 7.63 × 10−6 $/J.
When the total cold storage capacity was 691,800 joules, the longest refrigeration time for
aquatic products and biological samples was 21.44 h and 16.37 h, respectively.
Ma et al. (2022) [60] used an organic–inorganic composite PCM containing an aqueous
solution of mannitol for energy storage. A saline–alkali solution with a phase transition
temperature of 6 ◦ C and a latent heat of 240.1 J/g was produced after adding MgCl2 as a
coolant. Nano-CuO and MWCNT-OH were introduced as thermal conductivity enhancers
in nanocomposite phase change materials (NCPCM) to improve thermal conductivity and
refrigeration efficiency. SDBS (sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate), PAM (polyacrylamide),
and GG (guar gum) are used as dispersants in the base solution for effective dispersion. The
dispersing activity of SDBS in brine is poor, but the polymer dispersants are better than PAM
and GG. The thermal characteristics and cycling stability of NPCM were also investigated.
Mannitol/MgCl2 @MWCNT-OH/PAM exhibited the highest thermal performance with a
thermal conductivity of 0.685 W/m K and a 57.3% reduction in refrigeration time.
Lin et al. (2022) [61] prepared sodium sulphate decahydrate (SSD, Na2 SO4 –10H2 O)
for cold chain transportation (2–8 ◦ C). KCl and NH4 Cl lowered their phase transition tem-
peratures, while CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose) and borax (B) hindered phase separation
and super-cooling. The microstructure and chemical structure of the composite material
presented chemical compatibility. The preferred composite (SSD-BCKN3) shows minimal
phase separation, a sub-cooling degree of 0.7 ◦ C, and a phase transition temperature of
6.8 ◦ C.
Chang et al. (2022) [62] used a two-step in situ polymerization method to synthesise
microcapsules of poly (urea-formaldehyde) (UF). Here, n-tetradecane was applied as a
base material, and SDS was used as an emulsifier. The findings show that when the mass
fraction of SDS is 1.2%, the initial pH is 3.5, and the mass ratio of core to the shell is 2:1, the
phase change microcapsules have strong dispersibility. After the mass fraction of ethanol
in the base liquid reaches about 74% by weight, a stable latent heat functional fluid can be
produced. An increase in temperature leads to an increase in the thermal conductivity of
the latent heat functional fluid, while an increase in the mass fraction of microcapsules leads
to a decrease in thermal conductivity. Its viscosity increases with increasing temperature or
by increasing the mass fraction of microcapsules.
Ikutegbe et al. (2022) [63] encapsulated low-melting-point PCMs using a UV-PFA
(ultraviolet perfluoroalkoxy) coil reactor. Pure Temp (PT) 6 and cross-linked polymethyl
methacrylate are used as PCMs or housing materials. Various synthesis factors such
as polymerization time and core–shell mass ratio were investigated. The peak melting
temperature of 87.4% microencapsulated PCMs (m-PCMs) was 8.2 ◦ C and the average
latent heat was 131.1 kJ/kg. Microcapsules deteriorate above 440 ◦ C, while PT6 evaporates
at 240 ◦ C. The synthesized m-PCMs lost only 0.6% of their mass after heating at 40 ◦ C for
8 days.
Afsharpanah et al. (2022) [64] quantitatively investigated a miniature cuboid freezer
unit with two rows of serpentine tubes and connecting plates. The effect in this ice bucket
of dimensionless flow and geometrical factors on serpentine and extended surfaces were
studied, namely the Reynolds number and corrected Stefan number for refrigerant flow, coil
pitch/tank height (γ1 ), coil spacing/tank width (γ2 ), coil diameter/tank diagonal length
(γ3 ), plate area/maximum plate area (γ4 ), and plate thickness/pipe diameter (γ5 ). The
charging process is tracked by a stored energy ratio that takes into account both sensible
and potential energy storage. Larger values of γ1 , γ2 , γ4 , and γ5 result in higher charging
rates. Full surface thickness plates (γ4 = 1 and γ5 = 0.0081) increase the time-averaged
charge rate by 18%.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 22 of 40

Table 4 summarises previous studies on the utilisation of PCMs for cold chain applica-
tions, including the type of PCMs, studied parameters, and findings.

Table 4. A summary of studies on the utilisation of PCMs for cold chain applications.

Authors (Year)
Configuration/Composition Study Type Studied Parameters Highlighted Results/Findings
[Reference]
The thermal conductivity of the
Dodecane as PCM and
Song et al. Experimental and Effect of adding EG dodecane/EG mixture is fifteen
expanded graphite (EG) as
(2019) [57] Numerical to dodecane. times greater than that of the
the skeleton.
dodecane alone.
The amount of time that the box
spends cooling and the
temperature that it maintains
PCM1: (n-octanoic
both fluctuate but always stay
Xiaofeng and acid–myristic acid composite) Experimental and The temperature of the cold
within the parameters of what is
Xuelai (2020) [58] and PCM2: (potassium Numerical storage material.
considered to be an acceptable
sorbate–water composite).
range for the purpose of
preserving the quality of
perishable goods.
When the total amount of cold
energy stored is 691,800 J, the cold
Liu et al. Brine phase change material storage durations for aquatic
Experimental Stored cold energy.
(2022) [59] gels (BPCMGs). goods and biological samples
reach a maximum of 21.44 h and
16.37 h, respectively.
Utilizing sodium dodecyl
benzene sulfonate (SDBS), The highest thermal performance
polyacrylamide (PAM), and was achieved by the phase
guar gum (GG), as well as change system consisting of
adding MgCl2 , nano-copper Effect of adding MgCl2 , mannitol/MgCl2 @MWCNT-
Ma et al.
oxide (nano-CuO), and Experimental MWCNT-OH, SDBS, PAM, OH/PAM. This system’s thermal
(2022) [60]
covalently modified and GG. conductivity of 0.685 W/m K rose
hydroxylated multiwall by 18.16%, and the amount of
carbon nanotubes time spent in cold storage was cut
(MWCNT-OH) were by 57.3%.
also employed.
PCM is derived from sodium Analyses of the composites’
sulphate decahydrate with the microstructure as well as their
Lin et al. Effect of adding KCl and
addition of KCl and NH4Cl, Experimental chemical structures revealed that
(2022) [61] NH4 Cl, CMC, and B to PCM.
carboxymethyl cellulose the produced materials have high
(CMC), and borax (B). levels of chemical compatibility.
Latent heat functional fluid
Microcapsules of poly
thermal conductivity rises with
(urea-formaldehyde) (UF),
Chang et al. Temperature and mass temperature and decreases with
where n-tetradecane is used as Experimental
(2022) [62] fraction of microcapsules. microcapsule mass fraction.
core material and SDS as
Temperature or microcapsule
an emulsifier.
fraction enhances its viscosity.
Above 440 ◦ C, the microcapsules
began to decompose, whereas
PT6 began to entirely evaporate at
Polymerisation time and
Ikutegbe et al. Microencapsulated PCM 240 ◦ C. After 30 days of heating at
Experimental optimum core–shell
(2022) [63] (m-PCM). 40 ◦ C, the synthesised m-PCMs
mass ratio.
lost just 0.6% of their initial mass,
which stabilized after 8 days of
heating at that temperature.
The ratio of the serpentine
tube pitch length to the
container height (γ1 ), the ratio Enhanced charging rates are the
of the serpentine tube row result of higher values for γ1 , γ2 ,
A small ice container unit in distance to the container width γ4 , and γ5 and lower values for
Afsharpanah et al. the form of a cuboid, with two (γ2 ), the ratio of the serpentine γ3 . It was also discovered that
Numerical
(2022) [64] rows of serpentine tubes and tube diameter to the container using full-thickness plates (with a
connecting plates. diagonal length (γ3 ), the ratio γ4 value of 1 and a γ5 value of
of the plate area to the 0.0081) results in an 18% boost in
maximum plate area (γ4 ), and the time-averaged charging rate.
the ratio of the plate thickness
to the tube diameter (γ5 ).
 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 23 of 40

Regarding the information summarized in Table 4, one study indicates that the com-
bination of dodecane and EG has a thermal conductivity that is fifteen times larger than
that of dodecane alone. Additionally, the thermal conductivity of latent heat functional
fluids upsurges with temperature and declines with microcapsule mass fraction. Further,
the phase change system composed of mannitol/MgCl2 @MWCNT-OH/PAM produced
the maximum thermal efficiency.

3.5. Other Applications

A comprehensive evaluation of the conducted studies published between 2016–2022
that investigated the utilisation of PCMs in other applications of CTES are detailed in the
next sections.
In Dublin, Ireland, Browne et al. (2016) [65] described a revolutionary photovoltaic
(PV), thermodynamic (T), and PCM system for generating electricity, storing heat, and pre-
heating water in the open air. Thermo-syphonic flow removes heat from a heat exchanger
embedded in PCM, and the system design combines a PV module with a thermal collector
to achieve this. We compared the system’s efficiency to three different scenarios: (a) with
no PV module (PCM), (b) with no heat exchanger (HEX) and no PV module (PCM), and
(c) with just the PV module (alone). It was shown that the water temperature was roughly
5.5 ◦ C higher than in a PV/T system without PCM. It has been shown that PCMs are an
efficient heat storage mechanism for use in PV/T systems.
Hussain et al. (2017) [66] investigated eutectic (oleic and capric) latent heat storage ma-
terials for refrigeration. Fabrication of highly porous activated carbon (AC) nano-sheets was
performed to obtain improved thermo-physical properties. Freezing/solidification, DSC,
and thermal diffusion analysis showed improved thermo-physical properties. Figure 21
shows a linear increase in the heat transfer rate from 0.02 to 0.1 wt.% for the nano-dispersed
PCM, with a maximum time saving of 54% compared to the pure eutectic material. The
thermal conductivities of pure PCM were 0.194 W/m K (liquid) and 0.201 W/m K 26
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW (solid);
of 45
0.1 wt.% nano-dispersed PCM improved the value by 55%. The high nucleation rate
eliminates PCM super-cooling at 0.1 wt.% AC in the base fluid.

Figure21.
Figure DSCanalysis
21.DSC analysisofofpure
pureand
andnano-enhanced
nano-enhanced eutectic
eutectic PCMs [66].

Szeetetal.
Sze al. (2017)
(2017) [67]
[67] investigated
investigateda anon-eutectic
non-eutecticPCM, an an
PCM, aqueous solution
aqueous of ethylene
solution of eth-
glycol and ethanol, to determine its potential for high-value refrigeration applications.
ylene glycol and ethanol, to determine its potential for high-value refrigeration applica-
Differential scanning calorimetry and thermal response measurements were used to charac-
tions. Differential scanning calorimetry and thermal response measurements were used
terize aqueous solutions of different concentrations. These experiments were performed
to characterize aqueous solutions of different concentrations. These experiments were
performed on bulk PCM. PCMs can be stored at a wide range of temperatures without
phase separation problems. As shown in Figure 22, graphene oxide (GO) powder was
used in the formulation at a concentration of 1 wt.% as a stabilizing nano-filler to im-
prove thermal conductivity and reduce super-cooling levels.
 Figure 21. DSC analysis of pure and nano-enhanced eutectic PCMs [66].

Sze et al. (2017) [67] investigated a non-eutectic PCM, an aqueous solution of eth-
ylene glycol and ethanol, to determine its potential for high-value refrigeration applica-
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 tions. Differential scanning calorimetry and thermal response measurements were24used of 40

to characterize aqueous solutions of different concentrations. These experiments were

performed on bulk PCM. PCMs can be stored at a wide range of temperatures without
phase separation
on bulk PCM. PCMsproblems.
can beAs shown
stored at ainwide
Figure 22,ofgraphene
range oxidewithout
temperatures (GO) powder was
phase sepa-
ration
used in problems. As shown
the formulation at a in Figure 22, graphene
concentration of 1 wt.%oxide
as a (GO) powder
stabilizing was usedtoinim-
nano-filler the
formulation
prove thermalat a concentration
conductivity of 1 wt.%
and reduce as a stabilizing
super-cooling nano-filler to improve thermal
levels.
conductivity and reduce super-cooling levels.

(a)

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 45

(b)

Figure22.
Figure Thermalresponse
22. Thermal responsemeasurements
measurements of
of aqueous
aqueous ethylene
ethylene glycol
glycol at:
at: (a)
(a) 50
50 wt.%
wt.% with
with and
and
without 1% GO and (b) 60 wt.% with and without 1% GO [67].
without 1% GO and (b) 60 wt.% with and without 1% GO [67].

AAreused
reusedenergy
energyharvesting
harvestingdevice
device was
was invented
invented and
and created
created by
by Yu
Yu et
et al. (2018) [68]
al. (2018) [68]
by integrating two PCMs (PEG and 1-TD) with N- and P-type semiconductors. Due
by integrating two PCMs (PEG and 1-TD) with N- and P-type semiconductors. Due to the to the
differing phase transition temperatures between PEG and 1-TD, a temperature difference
differing phase transition temperatures between PEG and 1-TD, a temperature difference
between the semiconductors’ two sides was produced during both the heating and cooling
between the semiconductors’ two sides was produced during both the heating and
processes. Graphene nano-platelet (GNP)-loaded graphene aerogel was employed as a
cooling processes. Graphene nano-platelet (GNP)-loaded graphene aerogel was em-
supporting material to stop the leaking of PCMs. Utilising the output electric energy, a
ployed as a supporting material to stop the leaking of PCMs. Utilising the output electric
light bulb with a LED was illuminated after measuring the electric current. To help people
energy, a light bulb with a LED was illuminated after measuring the electric current. To
help people comprehend the energy harvesting system, the thermo-electric energy of the
device was also numerically simulated. In both the heating and cooling processes, the
maximum harvesting current was 10 mA, and the harvesting field was kept for 1900 s
and 850 s, respectively. A finite element method (FEM) was used to predict the temper-
 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 25 of 40

comprehend the energy harvesting system, the thermo-electric energy of the device was
also numerically simulated. In both the heating and cooling processes, the maximum
harvesting current was 10 mA, and the harvesting field was kept for 1900 s and 850 s,
respectively. A finite element method (FEM) was used to predict the temperature variation
and the consequent electric current with reference to time.
Huang et al. (2019) [69] mixed different concentrations of EG with water to produce
PCMs with different freezing points. Then, 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, and 0.5% MCNTs were
added to each EG–water-based liquid. The latent heats of 15–30% EG–water-based fluids
were 160, 141, 102, and 85.5 J/g, and the melting points were −12.2, −15.7, −22.1, and
−25.4 ◦ C, respectively. A moderate amount of MCNT has a negligible effect on the latent
heat and melting point. The MCNT content in the EG–water-based fluid increases thermal
conductivity. The thermal conductivity of solid samples increased more than liquid samples.
In the 0.5% MCNT sample, the thermal conductivity of the solid is twice that of the liquid.
Talukdar et al. (2019) [70] studied PCM as a thermal backup system for solar cold
storage during peak electricity demand or when there is no sun. The latent heat thermal
energy storage (LHTES) unit (PCM pack) acts as a heat exchanger and consists of evaporator
tubes and rectangular metal fins that facilitate heat transfer during PCM phase shifting.
Evaporators with 5, 8, 10, and 12 longitudinal aluminium fins and no fins within the PCM
package were examined. ANSYS Fluent 15.0 solidification and melting models use
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 enthalpy
of 45
porosity to create 3D simulation models. Figure 23 shows that a PCM package with more
fins freezes faster and stores more energy after melting.

Figure
Figure 23. 23. Heat
Heat fluxflux
vs vs timegraph
time graphshowing
showing effect
effect of
of variation
variationofofthickness of of
thickness PCM pack
PCM and and
pack number
number of used
of fins fins used
duringduring melting
melting [70]. [70].

Dhivya
Dhivya et (2019)
et al. al. (2019)
[71][71] investigated
investigated thethe influence
influence ofofweight
weightpercentage
percentageofofnano-
nanopar-
ticles added
particles added toto PCMs
PCMs forfor the
the possible
possible remedy
remedy of of low
low thermal
thermal conductivity.
conductivity. They
They cre-
created
ated microcapsules of silver (Ag)-doped ZnO nanoparticles distributed in eutectic PCMcon-
microcapsules of silver (Ag)-doped ZnO nanoparticles distributed in eutectic PCM
taining oleic/myristic
containing oleic/myristicacid.acid.InInthethe eutectic
eutectic mixture,
mixture, Ag-doped
Ag-doped ZnO ZnO nanoparticles
nanoparticles werewere
introduced in mass fractions of 0.05 wt.%, 0.1 wt.%, 0.15 wt.%, and 0.2
introduced in mass fractions of 0.05 wt.%, 0.1 wt.%, 0.15 wt.%, and 0.2 wt.%. The results wt.%. The results
showed
showed thatthat thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity rosebyby2.78%,
rose 2.78%,27.17%,
27.17%, 37.56%,
37.56%, and
and 48.62%,
48.62%,respectively,
respec-
tively, and microencapsulated eutectic PCMs can be recommended as a suitable core for
and microencapsulated eutectic PCMs can be recommended as a suitable core material
low-temperature
material latent heat
for low-temperature thermal
latent heat energy
thermalstorage
energyapplications.
storage applications.
Zou et al. (2020) [72] reported the effect of expanded graphite (EG) size on the
thermal properties of polycrystalline graphite (PCM). Three different sizes of EG (50, 80,
and 100 mesh) were selected for PCM as support material for the fabrication of their re-
spective composite CPCMs. The results showed that the effect of EG-50 on the shape
 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 26 of 40

R PEER REVIEW 29 of 45
Zou et al. (2020) [72] reported the effect of expanded graphite (EG) size on the thermal
properties of polycrystalline graphite (PCM). Three different sizes of EG (50, 80, and
100 mesh) were selected for PCM as support material for the fabrication of their respective
composite CPCMs. The results showed that the effect of EG-50 on the shape stability and
adsorption rate of modified CaCl2 .6H2 O-PCM was significantly better than that of EG-80
and EG100. Each of the three different forms of CPCM has a slightly lower temperature
compared to the melting temperature Tm of the original modified CaCl2 .6H2 O PCM. The
Tm changes of assembled PCMs may be caused by EG-induced alignment of modified
CaCl2 .6H2 O-PCMs around EGs, which may affect local steric hindrance. This transition
may occur due to EG-induced targeting. Therefore, of the three different EG types,29the
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 45
EG-50 is the one with the largest pore size, followed by EG-80 and then EG-100. This results
in a CPCM with a lower melting temperature, as shown in Figure 24.

Figure 24. (a) DSC curves and (b) the corresponding thermal properties of three kinds of modified
CaCl2 6H2O/EG CPCMs [72].

Borri et al. (2020) [73] established

Figure
a cylindrical experimental setup tothree obtain sub-zero
Figure24.
24.(a)
(a)DSC
DSCcurves
curves and
and (b)
(b) the correspondingthermal
the corresponding thermalproperties
propertiesofof kinds
three kinds of of modified
modified
thermal distributionCaCl of2 PCMs.
6H Deionized
2O/EG CPCMs
CaCl2 6H2 O/EG CPCMs [72]. [72]. water (ice) was used to calibrate and validate a
1D model, as shown in Figure 25. Sodium chloride, ethylene glycol, and decane were
Borri
Borrietetal.al.(2020)
(2020)[73]
[73] established cylindricalexperimental
established a cylindrical experimentalsetup
setup toto obtain
obtain sub-zero
sub-zero
tested as sub-zero PCMs.
thermal The numerical
thermaldistribution
distribution of PCMs.
of PCMs.results
Deionizedforwater
hydrous
water (ice) alcohol
(ice)was
was used were
usedtotocalibrate the
calibrateand
andmost
validate con-
validatea a
sistent with the test.1D1D
The experimental
model,
model, as shown and
shownininFigure
Figuremathematical
25. Sodium
25. chloride,
Sodium results
ethylene
chloride, for paraffin
glycol,
ethylene and decane
glycol, and
and aqueous
were
decanetested
were
as sub-zero PCMs.PCMs.The numerical resultsresults
sodium chloride aretested as sub-zero
different. Figure 26The
shows that for
numerical hydrous
this alcoholalcohol
for hydrous
difference were thewere
is due mostthe
to consistent
naturalmostcon-
con-
sistent with the test. The experimental and mathematical results for paraffin andsodium
with the test. The experimental and mathematical results for paraffin and aqueous aqueous
vection during meltingsodium
and
chloride sub-cooling
are
chloridedifferent. during
Figure
are different. 26
Figure
solidification.
shows 26that thisthat
shows difference is due toisnatural
this difference due toconvection
natural con-
during melting and sub-cooling during solidification.
vection during melting and sub-cooling during solidification.

Figure 25. A scheme of the PCM container and main dimensions [73].

25. A scheme of the PCM container and main dimensions [73].

Figure 25. A scheme ofFigure
the PCM container and main dimensions [73].
 J. Compos.
ompos. Sci. 2023,
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J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 27 of 40

Figure 26. Heat Flow of the different PCMs measured with DSC [73].

RakkappanHeat Flow et al. (2021) [74]PCMsprepared 1-decanol-expanded graphite composites

Figure
Figure 26.26.
Heat Flow ofofthe
thedifferent
different measured with
PCMs measured DSC [73].
with DSC [73].
(CPCM) as a substitute for ice in a cold thermal energy storage system (CTESS). CPCMs
Rakkappan et al. (2021) [74] prepared 1-decanol-expanded graphite composites
are macro-packaged in 42, 51, and 64 mm spherical shells (S.E.s) and tested at various
Rakkappan
(CPCM) et al.for(2021)
as a substitute ice in a[74] prepared
cold thermal energy 1-decanol-expanded
storage system (CTESS).graphite
CPCMs com
wall
are
temperatures
macro-packaged
(Tw)
in
for
42,
charge
51, and
(0,
64 mm
−3, and −6
spherical
°C) and
shells
discharge
(S.E.s) and
(10,
tested
13,
at
and 16 °C), as
various
(CPCM)
shown asFigures
in a substitute
27 andforfor
28. ice
CPCM in acan
cold thermal
store energy at astorage system (CTESS). (−3C
wall temperatures (Tw) charge (0, −3, and −latent heat
6 ◦ C) and higher
discharge wall
(10, 13, temperature
and 16 ◦ C),
are macro-packaged
°C)asthan
shown ice.inCPCM-filled in 42,28.mm
Figures 27 and51
51,
CPCM
and
S.E.can64store
mmlatent
1-decanol spherical
freezes shells
heat 85.37%
(S.E.s)
faster
at a higher wallthan
and tested at
PCM-filled
temperature S.E
wall −temperatures
at (−6 ◦
3 °C.C) The
than optimal (Tw) wall
ice. CPCM-filledfortemperatures
charge
51 mm S.E.(0,1-decanol
−3,
forand −6 °C)and
charging
freezes and
85.37% discharge
discharging (10,
are −313,
faster than PCM-filledandand 16
13 °C
− ◦ C. The optimal wall temperatures for charging and discharging are −3 and
shownS.E. in Figures
at
respectively, 6 27 and
as shown in 28. CPCM
Figure can storeaffects
29. Diameter latentloading
heat atand a higher wall temperat
unloading. With a 51
13 ◦S.E.
C, respectively, asPCM
shown in Figure81.27%
29. Diameter affects loading andtounloading. With a °C) and
°C) than ice. CPCM-filled 51 mm S.E. 1-decanol freezes 85.37% faster than◦ PCM-fil
mm CPCM, the requires and 76.45% less time store (Tw = −3
51 mm S.E. CPCM, the PCM requires 81.27% and 76.45% less time to store (Tw = −3 C)
atrecover
−6 °C. (Tw The=optimal
16 °C) a◦ given amount of energy,
wall temperatures for respectively.
and recover (Tw = 16 C) a given amount of energy, respectively. charging and discharging are −3 and
respectively, as shown in Figure 29. Diameter affects loading and unloading. W
mm S.E. CPCM, the PCM requires 81.27% and 76.45% less time to store (Tw = −3 °
recover (Tw = 16 °C) a given amount of energy, respectively.

Figure
Figure Experimental setup
27.Experimental
27. setupused
usedtoto
investigate the energy
investigate storage
the energy characteristics
storage [74].
characteristics [74].
J.J.Compos.
Compos.Sci.
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2023,7,7,xxFOR
FORPEER
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REVIEW 31 of3145of 45
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 28 of 40

Figure
Figure28. Macroscopic pictures of the
theprepared
preparedCPCM
CPCM [74].
Figure 28. Macroscopic
28. Macroscopicpictures of
pictures of the [74].
prepared CPCM [74].

Figure
Figure29.
29.(a)
(a)Effect
Effectof
of diameter on Charging
diameter on Chargingbehaviour
behaviourofof CPCM
CPCM andand
(b)(b) Charging
Charging raterate
and and
wall wall
heat flux
heat flux
Figure realized
realized
29. in various
in various
(a) Effect diameters
diameters
of diameter at
on at different wall temperatures
different behaviour
Charging wall temperatures
of CPCM [74].
[74].and (b) Charging rate and wall
heat flux realized in various diameters at different wall temperatures [74].
Nieetetal.
Nie al.(2021)
(2021) [75]
[75] investigated
investigatedaaportableportablePCM PCM boxboxforfor
cold chain
cold chaintransportation
transportation
presentations.As
presentations. Asshown
shown in in Figure
Figure 30, 30,aacomposite
composite PCM
PCM of of
graphene,
graphene, fumedfumed silica, and and
silica,
Nie et al. (2021) [75] investigated a portable PCM box for cold chain transportation
paraffin
paraffin (RT 5)
(RT 5) was was used
used in
in in this study.
thisFigure
study.30, Portable
Portable boxes
boxes withwith composite PCMs required
presentations.
the construction
Asof
shown
an experimental setup
aso
composite
that
PCMcomposite
the charging
oftime,
graphene,PCMs
cooling
required
fumed
time,
theand
silica,
and
construction
paraffin of an
(RT 5) was experimental
used in this setup
study.so that the
Portable charging
boxes The time, cooling
withfindings
composite time,
PCMs and power
required the
power efficiency of the portable boxes could be compared. indicated that the
efficiency
constructionof the portable
of an boxes
experimental could be
setup so and compared.
thatchemical The
the charging findings
time, indicated
cooling time, that the
composite PCMs exhibited high cyclability stability. PCM leakage canandbe power
composite
efficiency PCMs exhibited high cyclability and chemical stability. PCM indicated
leakage can be
stopped by adding 4 wt.% fumed silica to the mixture. When graphene was added to thethat the
of the portable boxes could be compared. The findings
stopped
mixtureby at adding 4 wt.%the fumed
composite 1%
PCMs by weight,
exhibited highsilica
thermal to the mixture.
conductivity
cyclability theWhen
andofchemical graphene
composite was by
increased
stability. PCM added55.4%.
leakage to the
can be
mixture
Box at
loading1% by
time weight,
is reduced theby thermal
6.25% conductivity
when using the of the
composite composite
PCM. The increased
onset of by
melting55.4%.
stopped by adding 4 wt.% fumed silica to the mixture. When graphene was added to the
Box
andloading timepoint
the freezing is reduced
of thethe by 6.25%PCM
composite when using
almost the composite
exactly matches thosePCM.of ThePCMs.
pure onset of
mixture at 1% by weight, thermal conductivity of the composite increased by 55.4%.
melting
As shownandinthe freezing
Figure 31, thispoint
showsofthat thethe
composite
incorporationPCM of almost
graphene exactly
and fumed matches
silicathose
into of
Box loading time is reduced by 6.25% when using the composite PCM. The onset of
pure PCMs. Ashas
the composite shown in Figure
little effect on the 31,temperature
this showsatthatwhich thethe
incorporation
phase transition of graphene
occurs. and
melting and the freezing point of the composite PCM almost exactly matches those of
fumed silica into the composite has little effect on the temperature at which the phase
pure PCMs. As shown in Figure 31, this shows that the incorporation of graphene and
transition occurs.
fumed silica into the composite has little effect on the temperature at which the phase
transition occurs.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023,
J. Compos. Sci.7,2023,
x FOR PEER REVIEW
7, 338 32 of 45
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J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 32 of 45

Figure 30. A schematic diagram of the formulation of the composite PCM [75].
Figure
Figure 30. 30. A schematicdiagram
A schematic diagram of
of the
the formulation
formulation ofof
thethe
composite PCMPCM
composite [75]. [75].

Figure 31.31.
Figure DSC curves
DSC of different
curves PCMs
of different [75].
PCMs [75].

Tafone
Tafone et etal.al.(2021)
(2021)[76][76]modelled
modelled and tested
tested aalow-temperature
low-temperaturehigh-grade
high-gradecold stor-
cold
age31.
Figure
storage (HGCS)
(HGCS) fixed
DSC curves
fixed bedof filled with
different
bed filled PCM.
PCMs
with A 1DAtransient
[75].
PCM. model
1D transient that simulates
model HGCSHGCS
that simulates charging
and discharging
charging was developed.
and discharging Numerical
was developed. results show
Numerical that
results the utilisation
show of PCM inofthe
that the utilisation
HGCS
PCMTafone alleviates
in the HGCS the thermocline
alleviates
et al. (2021) [76] effect
themodelled exhibited
thermocline and effect in the sensible
exhibited
tested heat (SH)
in the sensible heat
a low-temperature configuration,
(SH)
high-grade cold
resulting in (a)
configuration, a longer
resulting in discharge
(a) a longerphase and (b)
discharge a lower
phase andunit
(b) consumption
a lower unit with a thermal
consumption
storage (HGCS) fixed bed filled with PCM. A 1D transient model that simulates HGCS
buffering
with a thermal phenomenon triggered by the
buffering phenomenon phase transition
triggered by the phaseprocess. The configuration
transition process. The is
charging and discharging
guaranteed compared was developed.
to thecompared
SH configuration Numerical results show that the utilisation of
configuration is guaranteed to the (0.272 vs. 0.330 kWhe/kgLA).
SH configuration (0.272 vs.Figure
0.330 32
PCM in the
shows the HGCS
various alleviates the thermocline effect
bed exhibited in the sensible were
heat (SH)
kWhe/kgLA). Figurebilling 32 showsprocesses. The initial
the various fixed
billing and HTF
processes. inlet
The initial temperatures
fixed bed and
configuration,
HTF
◦
25 inlet
C and resulting
−155.8
temperatures
◦ in (a)25a °C
C, respectively.
were longer discharge
HTF−155.8
and and particle phase and (b)
temperature
°C, respectively. HTF a lower
trends
and are unit consumption
comparable
particle tem-
with a
but thermal
slightly buffering
biased. phenomenon
perature trends are comparable but slightly biased. triggered by the phase transition process. The
configuration is guaranteed compared to the SH configuration (0.272 vs. 0.330
kWhe/kgLA). Figure 32 shows the various billing processes. The initial fixed bed and
HTF inlet temperatures were 25 °C and −155.8 °C, respectively. HTF and particle tem-
perature trends are comparable but slightly biased.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338
33 of 45
30 of 40

Figure
Figure 32.32.
TheThe bedtemperature
bed temperature profile
profileof of
PCMPCM configuration at different
configuration time steps
at different (1 h,steps
time 2 h, 3 (1
h) h,
[76].
2 h, 3 h)
[76].
Rezaei et al. (2021) [77] introduced an innovative heating, ventilation, and air con-
ditioning (HVAC) system to address the negative effects of conventional HVAC systems
onRezaei et al. range
the driving (2021)of[77] introduced
electric vehicles. an innovative
A heat pump and heating, ventilation,
an outside and air con-
heat exchanger
ditioning (HVAC) system to address the negative effects of
that runs parallel to a shell-and-tube heat exchanger that employs PCM comprised the conventional HVAC systems
on the
HVAC driving
system.range
This of electric
heat exchanger vehicles. A heat pump
may temporarily andasanboth
function outside heat condenser
the cycle’s exchanger that
runs parallel to a shell-and-tube heat exchanger that employs PCM comprisedasthe
and evaporator. N-hexadecane serves as the PCM in the shell while R134a serves theHVAC
refrigerant in the tubes. When the PCM’s specific melting point
system. This heat exchanger may temporarily function as both the cycle’s condenser and is within the safe working
range, the system’s overall power consumption, as well as the compressor’s, are lowered.
evaporator. N-hexadecane serves as the PCM in the shell while R134a serves as the re-
A copper foam is used to make up for PCM’s low heat conductivity. The results showed
frigerant
that theinproposed
the tubes. When
system the PCM’s
increased specific
the vehicle melting
range by 19% point
at 10 is
◦ Cwithin
and by the 11%safe
at 0 ◦working
C
range,
when the system’stooverall
compared powerheat
conventional consumption,
pump systems. as well as the compressor’s, are lowered.
A copper foametisal.used
Sarafoji (2022)to[78]
make up fora PCM’s
proposed new PCM low heat
using conductivity.
a 53:47 wt.% laurylThe results showed
alcohol–capric
thatacid
the(LA–CA)
proposed system
binary increased
mixture; 0.25 wt.% theTiO
vehicle range
2 and CuO by 19% at are
nanoparticles 10 °C
added andtoby the11%
PCMat 0 °C
mix. Chemical and thermal analysis
when compared to conventional heat pump systems. of the LA–CA mixture demonstrated the stability of the
mixture for TES. The melting temperature of the PCM mixture was 9.57 ◦ C and the latent
Sarafoji et al. (2022) [78] proposed a new PCM using a 53:47 wt.% lauryl alcohol–
heat was 159.4 J/g. The thermal conductivity of the LA–CA/CuO PCM is increased by
capric acid (LA–CA) binary mixture;◦0.25 wt.% TiO2 and CuO nanoparticles are added to
17.56%, the melting temperature is 8.7 C, and the latent heat is 159.1 J/g. The LA–CA/CuO
the PCM
PCMexhibited
mix. Chemical
high thermal and andthermal
chemicalanalysis
stabilityofafter
the 1000
LA–CA mixture demonstrated the
cycles.
stabilityWang
of theetmixture for TES. The melting temperature of
al. (2022) [79] investigated the heat transfer, energy conversion, the PCM mixture was 9.57 °C
and efficiency
andofthe latenttetrabutylammonium
a novel heat was 159.4 J/g.bromide The thermal (TBAB) conductivity
hydrate coldofstorage
the LA–CA/CuO
system during PCM is
increased by 17.56%,
cold discharge. Thethe melting
process temperature
includes is 8.7 °C,
a gas turbulence andand
device the alatent
hydrate heat
coilisheat
159.1 J/g.
Theexchanger.
LA–CA/CuO The heatPCM exchange
exhibitedbalance
high during
thermalcoldandcharge and discharge
chemical buffers
stability afterthe storage
1000 cycles.
temperature. Forced convection of gas turbulence improves cold
Wang et al. (2022) [79] investigated the heat transfer, energy conversion, and effi- discharge capability
and reduces discharge time by a factor of three. Increased flow and lower cold discharge
ciency of a novel tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB) hydrate cold storage system
temperature increase cold discharge capacity. With different settings, the cooling efficiency
during cold discharge. The process includes a gas turbulence device and a hydrate coil
is 83%.
heat exchanger.
Mousavi et The al. heat
(2022)exchange balance
[80] evaluated during
a liquid cold charge
air energy storageand discharge
(LAES) system buffers
from the
storage temperature.and
a thermodynamic Forced
economicconvection
perspective.of gas Theturbulence
system uses improves
a packedcold bed discharge
thermal ca-
pability
energy and reduces
storage device discharge
(PBTES) time by a of
consisting factor
threeoflayers
three.of Increased
PCM. Due flow to theand lower cold
transient
nature oftemperature
discharge PBTES, dynamic modelling
increase coldwas used to study
discharge the efficacy
capacity. With ofdifferent
the system. This
settings, the
was performed to
cooling efficiency is 83%. ensure correct results. At peak, the proposed LAES system consumes
Mousavi et al. (2022) [80] evaluated a liquid air energy storage (LAES) system from a
thermodynamic and economic perspective. The system uses a packed bed thermal en-
ergy storage device (PBTES) consisting of three layers of PCM. Due to the transient na-
ture of PBTES, dynamic modelling was used to study the efficacy of the system. This was
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 31 of 40

4.42 MWh of energy to compress the air but generates only 1.8 MWh of electricity for use.
The system’s liquid production, the mass flow of liquid air, the specific work performed by
the compressor, and the cryogenic turbine all change with each cycle. This is due to the
dynamic behaviour of the system. After about 22 cycles, the system entered a steady state
with an overall efficiency of 42.5%, and the system performance degraded by about 5.9%
compared to ideal cycles due to transient behaviour.
Wu et al. (2022) [81] proposed and numerically investigated a novel latent heat thermal
energy storage (LHTES) device with different heating and cooling sources. The LHTES
devices include symmetrical and staggered configurations with side- and bottom-heated
LHTES devices, as well as newer LHTES devices with discrete heating and cooling sources.
The findings show that the discrete configuration of the sources greatly enhances the
additional conduction effects and natural convection in the side-heated LHTES unit. The
heat storage and release cycle of the symmetrical arrangement of side heating is shortened
by 49.9%, the heat preservation time is advanced by 46.6%, the heat preservation liquid
rate is increased by 4.2%, and the heat transfer rate is increased by 22.3%. These are the
most important improvements. The increase in performance due to the discrete source
placement of the LHTES device through floor heating is not discernible.
Laouer et al. (2022) [82] investigated the performance of two techniques to improve
heat transfer, namely adding fins and mixing nanoparticles (Cu and Al2 O3 ) to improve
the melting process of PCM (water) in inclined rectangular shells, used as a refrigeration
system. PCM phase transition and heat transfer modelling was conducted using in-house-
developed code based on the Lattice Boltzmann method. The code was validated with
experimental and numerical data within the published literature. The evaluation of the
reinforcement effect is mainly based on the number of ribs, the ratio of rib length to
nanoparticle size (W/H), and the volume percentage of nanoparticles (φ). The melting rate
at a rib length ratio of W/H = 0.75 is almost twice that at W/H = 0.25. Furthermore, the
loading of nanoparticles leads to a further acceleration of the melting rate. Using three
fins and a nanoparticle concentration of φ = 6 vol.%, the melting rate can be increased to
the maximum potential, resulting in a 33.5% reduction in the time required for the overall
melting process. By increasing the aspect ratio of the fins, more thermal energy can be
stored, reducing the time required for the melting process by up to 64%.
Feng et al. (2022) [83] tested a finned latent heat storage device. Modified expanded
graphite (MEG) is used to expand the thermal properties of water on the fin side of the heat
exchanger. Experimental studies of the charge–discharge process show that a system loaded
with 90% water/MEG has 80% of the cooling capacity of pure water but only 69% of the
cooling time and 15.9% more power than water. The 90% water/MEG system performs two
charge and discharge cycles. A mathematical model was built and authenticated to examine
the effect of phase transition behaviour and structure size on system performance. The fin
spacing of the heat exchanger has no effect on cold storage, but the pipe spacing does.
Liu et al. (2022) [84] developed a ground-breaking phase change cold storage unit
(PCCSU) as a mobile refrigeration unit for transporting refrigerated vehicles to improve
the efficiency of room temperature control. The PCCSU was placed at the front of a ther-
mally shielded internal compartment and charged using a refrigeration system during
non-operational hours. The cold thermal energy of the PCCSU cooled the chamber. The
experiment’s findings were obtained at a variety of cold temperatures, with accompa-
nying energy expenditures and transportation-related dangers. The results showed that
the efficiency of the temperature regulation system was significantly improved when
the suggested PCCSU was installed in the thermally insulated space. In comparison to
conventional PCM refrigeration systems, it also permits a wider variety of temperature
configurations. The average air temperature of the inner compartment could be preserved
at 12.3 ◦ C for 16.6 h, 14.5 ◦ C for 14.7 h, and 16.5 ◦ C for 10 h in the hot summer with an
average ambient temperature of 29 ◦ C.
Table 5 summarises previous studies on the utilisation of PCMs for cooling in different
applications, including the type of PCMs, studied parameters, and findings.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 32 of 40

Table 5. A summary of studies on the utilisation of PCMs for cooling in different applications.

Authors (Year)
Configuration/Composition Study type Studied Parameters Highlighted Results/Findings
[Reference]
Water temperature was roughly
Browne et al.
Novel PV/T/PCM system. Experimental Influence of using PCM. 5.5 ◦ C higher than that of a PV/T
(2016) [65]
system without PCM.
When compared to pure eutectic, the
PCM in a base fluid that contains Effect of adding highly highest time savings was 54%, and
Hussain et al.
0.1 weight percent of Experimental porous activated carbon the heat transfer rate increased
(2017) [66]
activated carbon. (AC) nano-sheets. linearly from 0.02 wt.% to 0.1 wt.%
for nano-dispersed PCM.
After adding 1 wt.% graphene oxide,
super-cooling degrees for 49.5 wt.%
Aqueous solutions of ethylene ethylene glycol dropped by 61%
Effect of adding graphene
glycol and ethanol, with a stable from 9 ◦ C to 3 ◦ C. Melt beginning
Sze et al. oxide on super-cooling,
nano-filler consisting of Experimental and peak temperatures are now
(2017) [67] melting, and latent heat of
graphene oxide powder at a −53 ◦ C and −36 ◦ C, respectively.
fusion.
concentration of 1% by weight. The latent heat of fusions was
reduced by 12% for 50% ethylene
glycol and 6% for 60% ethanol.
An energy harvesting system
was developed by integrating The electric current
The maximum harvesting current
two PCMs (PEG and 1-TD) with measured from the energy
was 10 mA for both the heating and
Yu et al. N- and P-type semiconductor Experimental and harvesting device was
cooling processes, and the harvesting
(2018) [68] while utilising graphene Numerical studied for variable
fields were maintained for 1900 and
nano-platelets as a supporter environmental
850 s, respectively.
and promoting the temperatures.
shape stability.
Due to the very low overall
After adding EG of varying concentration of MCNT, the addition
concentrations to the water, of MCNT has a negligible impact on
MCNT at concentrations of the latent heat and melting point of
Huang et al. EG concentration and
0.0625%, 0.125%, 0.25%, and Experimental the material. Additionally, the
(2019) [69] particle volume fraction.
0.5% was then distributed into quantity of MCNT that is
each of the concentrated in EG–water-based
EG-water-based fluids. fluids causes a rise in the thermal
conductivity of the fluids.
The PCM pack with a thickness of
Effect of longitudinal
6.5 cm and a greater number of fins
Talukdar et al. PCM pack occupied by PCM Experimental and aluminium fins inside the
was found to have a larger energy
(2019) [70] acts as a heat exchanger. Numerical PCM pack and thickness
storage capacity as well as a higher
of PCM pack.
heat flow during the melting process.
Microcapsules of silver Explore the effect of the The thermal conductivity increases
(Ag)-doped ZnO nanoparticles weight percentage of by 2.78%, 27.17%, 37.56%, and
Dhivya et al. [71] with different mass fractions Experimental nanoparticles added to 48.62%, due to adding 0.05 wt.%,
distributed in eutectic PCM PCMs for improving the 0.1 wt.%, 0.15 wt.%, and
containing oleic/myristic acid. thermal conductivity. 0.2 wt.%, respectively.
The impact of EG-50 in maintaining
the form was deemed to be superior
to that of EG80 and EG-100. The
Zou et al. Mass fraction and size
EG added to CaCl2 6H2 O PCM. Experimental disparity in thermal performances of
(2020) [72] of EG.
CPCMs was brought on by the
dissimilarities in the sizes of their
EG components.
Aqueous sodium chloride, According to the trials, aqueous
Borri et al. Experimental and
aqueous ethylene glycol, Type of PCM. alcohol showed the greatest level
(2020) [73] Numerical
and decane. of agreement.
The optimal wall temperature for
charging is determined to be −3 ◦ C,
Composite made of graphite that Macro-encapsulated whereas the optimal wall
Rakkappan et al.
has been expanded with Experimental diameter and temperature for discharging is found
(2021) [74]
1-decanol (CPCM). wall temperature. to be 13 ◦ C. Both the charging and
discharging rates are higher with
larger diameters.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 33 of 40

Table 5. Cont.

Authors (Year)
Configuration/Composition Study type Studied Parameters Highlighted Results/Findings
[Reference]
The composite’s heat conductivity
rose by 55.4% when graphene at a
weight fraction of 1% was added to
it. The PCM leakage was able to be
stopped with the addition of
Nie et al. Paraffin-based PCM (RT 5), wt.% of graphene and
Experimental 4 weight percent of fumed silica. By
(2021) [75] fumed silica, and graphene. fumed silica.
using silica and graphene, one may
improve the nucleation process of
phase change kinetics and lower the
amount of PCM super-cooling
that occurs.
The incorporation of a PCM into the
HGCS helps to reduce the
thermocline effect that is seen in the
SH configuration. This results in the
Tafone et al. Novel cryogenic HGCS packed Experimental and Effect of introducing a
following advantages over SH
(2021) [76] bed filled with PCM. Numerical PCM in the HGCS.
design: a longer discharge phase and
lower specific consumption
(0.272 kWhe/kgLA as opposed to
0.330 kWhe/kgLA).
A novel HVAC system made up
Effect of the specific
of a heat pump and an outside In comparison to traditional heat
melting point of
heat exchanger that runs parallel pump systems, the system that is
Rezaei et al. Experimental and N-hexadecane PCM on
to a shell-and-tube heat suggested enhanced the vehicle’s
(2021) [77] Numerical compressor’s power
exchanger that uses range by 19% at 10 ◦ C and by 11% at
consumption and overall
N-hexadecane PCM and R134a 0 ◦ C, according to the results.
performance of the vehicle
as the refrigerant in the tubes.
The thermal conductivity of the
suggested LA–CA/CuO PCM is
In the beginning, the PCM increased by 17.56% with the
mixture comprised a binary incorporation of nanoparticles. The
Effect of weight % lauryl
mixture of lauryl alcohol and PCM has a melting temperature of
Sarafoji et al. alcohol–capric acid and
capric acid (LA–CA) with 53:47 Experimental 8.7 ◦ C and a latent heat of 159.1 J/g.
(2022) [78] the TiO2 and CuO
wt.%; afterwards, TiO2 and CuO Even after 1000 cycles, the thermal
nanoparticles.
nanoparticles were added to the and chemical stability of the
mixture at 0.25 wt.%. suggested LA–CA/CuO PCM
remains outstanding. This is due to
the PCM’s high copper content.
Gas disturbance forced convection,
increased cold discharge capacity,
and shortened discharge time by a
Tetrabutylammonium bromide Gas disturbance, cold factor of three. Increasing flow rate
Wang et al.
(TBAB) hydrate cold Experimental charge temperature, and and reducing cold charge
(2022) [79]
storage system. flow rate. temperature enhanced cold
discharge capacity. Under diverse
settings, cold discharge efficiency
was 83%.
The system with a general efficacy of
System for the storage of liquid 42.5% reaches the equilibrium state
Mousavi et al. air energy (LAES), which makes after about 22 cycles, and transient
Numerical Cycles of the system.
(2022) [80] use of a packed bed for thermal behaviour causes the performance of
energy storage (PBTES). the system to decline by around 5.9%
in comparison to the optimum cycle.
The side-heated and symmetrical
arrangement reduced the heat
LHTES unit that has separate storage and release cycle by 49.9%,
heat and cold sources, including advanced the steady-state period by
Wu et al. symmetrical and staggered Arrangements of heat and 46.6%, raised the steady-state liquid
Numerical
(2022) [81] layouts with side-heated and cold sources. percentage by 4.2%, and enhanced
bottom-heated the heat transfer rate by 22.3%. The
LHTES applications. separate source configuration did
not increase bottom-heated
LHTES performance.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 34 of 40

Table 5. Cont.

Authors (Year)
Configuration/Composition Study type Studied Parameters Highlighted Results/Findings
[Reference]
When compared to a ratio of W/H
equal to 0.25, the rate of melting is
Enhancing the melting process about two times greater when the fin
of PCM (water) in an inclined length ratio is W/H = 0.75. In the
Number of fins, fin length
Laouer et al. rectangular container by adding case of three fins and a nanoparticle
Numerical ratio, and nanoparticle
(2022) [82] fins and hybrid nanoparticles concentration of φ= 6 vol.%, the
volume fraction.
made of copper and melting rate may be increased to its
aluminium oxide. maximum potential, resulting in a
time reduction in the full melting
process by 33.5%.
Heat exchanger fin spacing did not
affect the cold energy storage unit,
Heat exchanger fin but tube pass spacing did. The
Feng et al. Water and modified expanded Experimental and
spacing and wt.% system’s cooling capacity, cooling
(2022) [83] graphite (MEG). Numerical
water/MEG. duration, and average power were
80.8%, 69.7%, and 15.9% greater than
those of pure water, respectively.
In a hot summer with an average
A ground-breaking phase
ambient temperature of 29 ◦ C, the
change cold storage unit
Liu et al. average air temperature of the inner
(PCCSU) was developed as a Experimental
(2022) [84] compartment could be maintained at
mobile refrigeration unit for the
12.3 ◦ C for 16.6 h, 14.5 ◦ C for 14.7 h,
transport of refrigerated vehicles
and 16.5 ◦ C for 10 h.

To summarise Table 5, it was shown that tube pass spacing, not heat exchanger
fin spacing, had an impact on the cold energy storage unit investigated in one study.
Additionally, it was found that a PCM pack with a thickness of 6.5 cm and more fins had a
stronger heat flow during the melting process as well as a greater energy storage capacity.
Additionally, the heat transfer rate rose linearly for a nano-dispersed PCM from 0.02 wt.%
to 0.1 wt.%, with the largest time savings of 54% when compared to a pure eutectic PMC.

4. Critical Evaluation on Utilising PCMs in Different CTES Applications and

Nominal Improvements
This section focuses on conducting a critical evaluation review on deploying PCMs
in different sectors of CTES. Apparently, eutectic, organic, and inorganic PCMs were
intensively deployed for various applications of CTES. However, the popularity of their
usage is quite linked to their thermal and physical characteristics in addition to a number
of specific requirements and considerations. The following points demonstrate some
conceptual facts drawn from the covered studies and associated studies:
• Organic, inorganic, and eutectic PCMs (binary and ternary) all have benefits and are
used in CTES applications. Basically, the decision between them is influenced by
criteria such as the needed temperature range, heat transfer efficiency, cost considera-
tions, safety regulations, and the unique needs of the application. However, it should
be noted that eutectic PCMs provide optimum advantages that make them suited
for a wide range of applications in a variety of applications. For instance, eutectic
PCMs have a stable and clearly stated melting point, allowing them to move through
a sudden phase change at a given temperature. This property assures consistent and
reliable thermal behaviour, making them perfect for specific applications requiring
exact temperature control. Furthermore, eutectic PCMs possess considerable latent
heat capacities, which means they can store and release a large quantity of thermal
energy during the phase transition process. This characteristic enables them to deliver
optimal temperature regulation and thermal buffering by effectively storing thermal
energy. Compared to organic and inorganic PCMs, eutectic PCMs have higher thermal
conductivity. This allows for faster heat transmission during the phase transition pro-
cess, making them suited for applications that demand rapid heating or cooling cycles.
Eutectic PCMs have been designed to sustain several phase change cycles without
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 35 of 40

deterioration. Their capacity to withstand multiple melting and solidification cycles

without deterioration in performance makes them suitable for long-term applications.
These characteristics also contribute to their popularity and adaptability. This can con-
tribute to a diverse selection of sectors employing eutectic PCMs including building
and construction, energy storage, HVAC systems, thermal regulation in electronics,
cold chain management, and thermal comfort enhancement in clothing and textiles.
New eutectic PCM formulations and their uses may arise as research and technology
advance in the future;
• Incorporating eutectic phase transition materials into wall boards, concrete, gypsum,
flooring, and other building materials reduces energy expenditure while increasing
thermal comfort. Many examples of successful implementation of PCMs for cold
storage in buildings were described in [37–43]. Apparently, macro-encapsulation
provides an effective, secure, and straightforward means of using eutectic PCM,
among numerous integration approaches, and its potential uses have received a lot of
attention in recent years;
• Because organic eutectic PCMs are often non-toxic, non-corrosive, less chemically re-
acted, pose fewer environmental concerns, and have customized melting temperature
and enthalpy, they are suitable for thermal energy storage in electronics and structures
such as portable cooling units and temperature-controlled packaging. However, it
should be noted that each organic eutectic PMC has a specific melting point and latent
melting enthalpy and, therefore, it would suit a unique application only [85];
• When a specific, narrow temperature range must be implemented for an applica-
tion, eutectic PCMs are frequently preferred. Their fast phase change enables precise
temperature control. Organic PCMs, on the other hand, may be preferable when a
wider range of cooling temperatures is appropriate. However, eutectic PCMs have low
heat conductivity and leakage during the phase transition, which severely limits their
application. Therefore, advanced research was conducted to develop shape-stabilized
composites in addition to enhancing their thermal conductivity. One plausible op-
tion was to add metallic nanoparticles and carbon-based materials of high thermal
conductivity to eutectic PCMs in addition to mitigating the leaking of PCMs. Also,
the dispersion of nanoparticles in specific mass fractions and an increase in the mass
fraction of nanoparticles can significantly improve the heat transfer characteristics
of eutectic PCMs, leading to a reduction in solidification and melting time. Other
colleagues were focused on adding different conductive materials such as expanded
graphite, carbon nanotube TiO2 , and ZnO. Detailed examples of the most advanced
methods were elucidated by Veerakumar and Sreekumar (2015) [27], Dong et al.
(2022) [43], Zheng et al. [44], Said and Hassan (2018) [46], Song et al. (2019) [57],
Xiaofeng and Xuelai (2020) [58], and Hussain et al. [66]. Most importantly, the charac-
teristics of higher thermal conductivity of eutectic PCMs compared to organic PCMs
have allowed for faster heat transfer during the phase change process. In turn, this
paved the way towards the implication of eutectic PCMs in several applications that
necessitate rapid cooling or temperature stabilization.

5. Conclusions
This study reviewed the current research literature on the use of PCMs as latent heat
energy storage strategies in different sectors of cold thermal energy storage systems. The
review started by illustrating the classification, selection criteria, and performance testing
and addressing the greatest challenges encountered with their utilisation in different appli-
cations of cold thermal energy storage. Second, for each aspect examined, the proposed
studies fall into three distinct categories: experimental, numerical, and experimental and
numerical studies. As a summary, five tables were prepared: the first table summarised
the associated studies of PCMs for cold energy storage in buildings; the second table sum-
marised the conducted studies using PCMs for air conditioning and refrigeration; the third
table summarised the use of PCMs for cold chain applications; the fourth table summarised
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 36 of 40

the studies using PCMs for cold chain applications; and the fifth table summarised the
studies using PCMs for cooling in other applications. Specifically, different experimental
and numerical studies for cold energy storage applications were evaluated. Based on the
thermal performance analysis included in each study examined and the evaluation of the
results contained in Tables 1–5, it can be stated that eutectic PCMs are an appealing solution
for a wide range of thermal management and energy storage applications due to their
dependability, efficiency, and versatility. Furthermore, eutectic PCMs possess considerable
latent heat capacities, which means they can store and release a large quantity of thermal
energy during the phase transition process. Thus, it is not surprising to notice the wide
applications of eutectic PCMs as they are useful for long-term applications due to their
ability to resist numerous melting and solidification cycles without performance degrada-
tion. Further important conclusions related to the improvements made in the utilisation
of PCMs in different applications of thermal energy storage systems can also be made in
the following:
1. Cold storage in buildings: Smaller PCM ball diameter and faster chilled water flow
rate increase freezing speed;
2. Air conditioning systems: Phase change cold storage has a capacity that is 1.5 times
greater than ice cold storage and offers better overall performance. Also, when the
inlet air temperature of the phase change material air conditioner is 35 ◦ C, the PCM-
equipped air conditioner outperforms the conventional unit by 14%, 13%, and 12%at
inlet velocities of 0.96 m/s, 1.2 m/s, and 1.44 m/s, respectively;
3. Refrigeration systems: With three fins and a nanoparticle concentration of φ = 6 vol.%,
the melting rate can be increased to its maximum potential, resulting in a 33.5%
reduction in the time of the overall melting process;
4. Cold chain applications: As the temperature rises and the mass fraction of micro-
capsules increases, the thermal conductivity of the latent heat functional fluid drops.
Furthermore, higher values of coil pitch/tank height, coil spacing/tank width, plate
area/maximum plate area and plate thickness/pipe diameter result in higher charg-
ing rates. Full-thickness plates (plate area/maximum plate area = 1 and plate thick-
ness/pipe diameter = 0.0081) increase the time-averaged charge rate by 18%;
5. Cold storage applications: Adding 4% fumed silica stops PCM leakage. Silica and
graphene improve PCM nucleation and minimise super-cooling;
6. Finned heat exchanger: The cooling capacity, cooling time, and average performance
of the system are 80.8%, 69.7% and 15.9% greater than those of pure water, respectively;
7. Solar cold storage: The PCM package with many fins has a larger energy storage
capacity and a larger fusion heat flux.

6. Recommendations for Future Research Directions

The following recommendations can be drawn from the current review:
1. Increasing the heat storage density of PCMs is vital when developing a more efficient
structure of cold chain transportation and refrigeration equipment;
2. It will be an interesting future research direction to study the phase transition be-
haviour of aqueous solutions including other forms of carbon nano-fillers;
3. In the context of cold thermal energy storage systems, it is important to study the ther-
mal effects of many different radial configurations, geometries, initial temperatures,
heat transfer fluid temperatures, and heat transfer coefficients;
4. Incorporating super-cooling and extending the prior approaches to various container
forms and boundary circumstances are possible future advances;
5. A special focus is needed on the low charging rate and device design methodology
for future commercial application;
6. It is rare to find an accessible paper on the subject of corrosion analysis of eutectic
PCM containers. As a result, greater research into novel eutectic PCMs and corrosion
studies of container materials is proposed.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 338 37 of 40

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.L.R. and M.A.A.-O.; methodology, F.L.R., A.H., A.D.,
and A.H.; software, H.B.M.; validation, F.L.R., L.F.A.B., H.B.M., Z.A.A.R. and A.H.; formal analysis,
M.A.A.-O. and L.F.A.B.; investigation, Z.A.A.R. and A.H., F.L.R.; resources, A.D. and A.H.; data
curation, F.L.R., A.D., Z.A.A.R., H.A.H. and M.A.A.-O.; writing—original draft preparation, F.L.R.,
M.A.A.-O., A.D., L.F.A.B., H.B.M., A.H. and H.A.H.; writing—review and editing, F.L.R., M.A.A.-O.,
A.D., L.F.A.B., Z.A.A.R., A.H. and H.A.H.; visualization, F.L.R.; supervision, F.L.R. and A.D.; project
administration, F.L.R. and A.D.; funding acquisition, L.F.A.B. and A.D. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The financial support of Kerbala University and University of Warith Al-Anbiyaa
Universities in Iraq is gratefully acknowledged.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
PCMs Phase change materials
CTES Cold thermal energy storage
TES Thermal energy storage
AC Air conditioning
SEM Scanning electronic microscopy
DSC Differential scanning calorimetry
MCNTs Multiwall carbon nanotubes
FT-IR Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy
HTF Heat transfer fluid
NCPCMs Nanocomposite phase change materials
PBTES Packed bed thermal energy storage
LAES Liquid air energy storage
LHTES Latent heat thermal energy storage
GHX Ground heat exchanger
ANSYS Analytical system

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