Introduction to Electrical Engineering BESCK104/204 B

SUBJECT: Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK104B)

MODULE-1

DC Circuits: Ohm’s Law and its limitations. KCL & KVL, Mesh &

Loop Analysis, Series, Parallel,Series-parallel circuits

Theorems: Superposition Theorem, Maximum Power Transfer Theorem,

Thevenin’s Theorem & Star Delta Transformation. Illustrative examples.

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering BESCK104/204 B

DC Circuits

Ohm‟s Law
German physicist Georg Ohm derived relationship between voltage, current and
resistance in an electrical circuit called ohm‟s law.

It states that “The potential difference applied across the circuit, is directly
proportional current flowing through the circuit provided the temperature remains
Constant ".

Vα I
V=RI
R - Constant of proportionality called Resistance of a conductor in ohm‟s (Ω).

V – Potential difference across the circuit or voltage in volts (V).

I - Current in Amps (A).

Limitations of Ohm‟s law

 It is not applicable to non-metallic conductors like silicon carbide.

 It is not applicable to non-linear devices like diodes.
 It is not applicable to 'arc lamps', because arc produced exhibits non-
linear characteristics.

1.2 Analysis of Series and Parallel Circuits

I. Series Circuit
In a series circuit the finishing end of one resistor is connected to starting end of
another resistor.
Consider three resistances connected series.

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In series circuit the current flowing through all the resistances is same.

Let , I be the current flowing through all the resistors.

Let V1, V2, and V3  be the voltages drops across the resistances R1 ,R2
and R3 respectively

The supply voltage V is the sum of the voltage drops across the resistances.

I,e V = V1 + V2 + V3
According to Ohm‟s law

V1 = IR1
V2 = IR2
V3 = IR3
Applying Ohm‟s law to the overall circuit

V= I RT
RT - is the Total or equivalent resistance of the circuit
V = V1 + V2 + V3
I RT = IR1 + IR2 +IR3I RT
= I [R1 + R2 +R3]

RT = R1 + R2 +R3

Thus the Total or Equivalent Resistance in a series Circuit is equal to the Sum
of the resistances connected in series.
Hence,

 In Series circuit the same current is flowing through all resistances.

 The supply voltage „V‟ is the sum of the individual voltage drops across
the each resistance.

 If „N‟ resistances connected in series then

RT= R1+ R2+R3+ -------------- +RN

and V= V1 + V2+ ------------ +VN

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II. Parallel Circuit

In a Parallel circuit the starting end of all the resistor are connected to one point
and finishing end of all the resistors are connected to another point.

Consider three resistances connected in parallel.

In parallel circuit the voltage applied across each resistance is equal to the
supply voltage.
Let „I‟ be the current drawn from the supply.
Let I1, I2, and I3 be the Current through the resistances R1 ,R2 and R3
respectively.

I,e I= I1 + I2 + I3
According to Ohm‟s law

I1 = 𝑉 I2 = 𝑉 I3 = 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉

Applying Ohm‟s law to the overall circuit I=

RT

Req - is the Total or equivalent resistance of the circuit

I= I1 + I2 + I3
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +𝑅
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 3

𝑉 𝑅𝑇 V[ 1
= 𝑅1
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1 1
+ + ]
𝑅3
𝑅2

1
+ +

Thus the reciprocal of Total or Equivalent Resistance in a parallel Circuit is equal

to the Sum of the reciprocal of individual resistances connected in parallel.
Hence,

 In Parallel circuit the voltage across each resistance is equal to supply

voltage.

 The total current „I‟ is the sum of the currents drawn by the each
resistance.

 If „N‟ resistances connected in parallel then

1 1 1 1 1
= + + -----------+

𝑅𝑇 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
1 2 3 𝑵
and I= I1 + I2+ ------------- +IN
Note: When 2 Resistances are connected in parallel then the Total resistance is

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1 1 1
= +
𝑅T 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 𝑅1+𝑅2
=
𝑅T 𝑅1𝑅2

𝑹1+𝑹2
𝑹 𝑹1𝑹2

III. Current Division in Parallel circuit of Resistors

Consider a parallel circuit of two resistors R1 and R2 connected across a supply
Voltage of „V‟ Volts.

Let I1 and I2 be the Current through the resistances R1 and R2 respectively.

I,e I= I1 + I2 ---------------------- 1
According to Ohm‟s law
𝑉 𝑉
I1 = and I2 =
𝑅1 R2

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We know that in parallel circuit the voltage across each resistance is equal to
supply voltage.
I,e V= V1= V2

Where V1 and V2 is the voltage across R1 and R2

wkt V1=I1 R1 and V2 =I2 R2

Therefore I1 R1 =I2 R2

2 2
I =
Substitute I1 in equation 1 we get

I= I1 + I2
I2 R2
I= + I2
R1

I = I2 [ R2
+ 1]
R1

R2 +R1
I = I2 [ ]
R1

I R1
Therefore I2 =
R1+𝑅2

IR2
Similarly I1 =
R1+𝑅2

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Problems:
1.

2.

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3.

4.

1.3 Kirchhoff‟s Law

Kirchhoff's circuit laws are deals with the two parameters in the electric circuit -
current and potential difference. They were first described in 1845 by German
physicist Gustav Kirchhoff. He generalized the work of Georg Ohm.

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i) Kirchhoff‟s Current Law (KCL)

Statement: It states that “The Algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a
junction in an electric circuit is equal to zero.”

ΣI=0
Example: Consider a junction in an electrical network as shown in the fig.The
currents I1 and I3 are taken as positive as they are entering the junction. While
I2 and I4 are negative as leaving the junction.

I2
4
I1

I3

Applying KCL to the above circuit

I1 – I2 + I3- I 4 = 0
I,e I1 + I3 = I2 +I 4
“The total current flowing towards a junction is equal to the total current
leaving the junction.”
Note: Sign convention: The currents entering the junction taken as positive and
the currents leaving the junction are taken as negative.

ii) Kirchhoff‟s Voltage law [KVL]

Statement: “In any closed path, the algebraic sum of the Emf‟s and the
voltage drops across the circuit elements is equal to zero. “

Σ Emf + Σ IR drops = 0
Example: Consider an electrical network as shown in fig

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I R1 R2

+ - + -
V2
V1

Applying KVL to the loop

- IR1 - IR2 + V2 + V1 = 0

V1+ V2 = IR1 + IR2

Note: Sign convention: while tracing the path across

i) If its moving from „+‟ to „-„then it is voltage drop therefore take as negative.
ii) If its moving from „-‟ to „+„then it is voltage rise therefore take as Positive.

1.5 Electrical Power

The rate at which electrical work is done in a circuit is called Electrical Power.
Electrical power is denoted by P and measured in Watt (W).
P=V I
P = (IR) I = I2 R [V = IR]
2
P = V (𝑉 ) = 𝑉
[I=V/R]

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𝑅 𝑅

P=VI = I2 R = watts

1.6 Energy

Energy is defined as the amount of electrical work is done in a circuit in a

specified time.

It is denoted as „E‟ and measured in Joules (J).

E=VI t = I2 R t = joules

1.7Kirchoff’s Laws:-
Kirchoff’s current law or point law (KCL)

Statement:- In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents

meeting at a point is zero.
 I = 0................................. at a junction or node

Assumption:- Incoming current = positive

Outgoing current = negative

Kirchoff’s voltage law or mesh law (KVL)

Statement:- The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in

each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the
algebraic sum of the emfs in that path is zero.
 IR +emf = 0 .......................................... round the mesh
Assumption:- i) Rise in voltage (If we go from negative terminal of the

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battery to positive terminal) = positive

ii) Fall in voltage (If we go from positive terminal of the battery to negative
terminal) = negative
iii) If we go through the resistor in the same direction as current then there is
a fall in potential. Hence this voltage is taken as negative.
iv)If we go through the resistor against the direction of current then there is a
rise in potential. Hence this voltage drop is taken as positive.
v) Example:- Write the loop equation for the given circuit below
(Supplementary exam 2004)
E1
r1
i

r2

E2

r3
E3
Solution: Apply KVL to the loop,
 ir1  E1 ir2  E 2  ir3  E 3  0

 E1  E 2  E 3   ir1  ir2  ir3

 E1  E 2  E 3   i  r1  r2  r3 

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1.8 MESH ANALYSIS

Statement:- This method determines branch currents and voltages across the
elements of a network. The following process is followed in this method:-

 Here, instead of taking branch currents (as in Kirchoff’s law) loop currents
are taken which are assumed to flow in the clockwise direction.
 Branch currents can be found in terms of loop currents
 Sign conventions for the IR drops and battery emfs are the same as for
Kirchoff’s law.
 This method is easier if all the sources are given as voltage sources. If there
is a current source present in a network then convert it into equivalent
voltage source.
Explanation:-
Consider a network as shown in Fig. below. It contains two meshes. Let I1 and
I2 are the mesh currents of two meshes directed in clockwise.

Apply KVL to mesh-1,

V1 -I1 R 1 -  I1 -I 2  R 3 = 0

Apply KVL to mesh-2,

-I 2 R 2 -V2 -  I 2 -I1  R 3 =0

When we consider mesh-1, the current I1 is greater than I2. So, current through
R3 is I1-I2. Similarly, when we consider mesh-2, the current I2 is greater than I1.
So, current through R3 is I2 – I1.
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Example: Find I1, I2 and I3 in the network shown in Fig below using loop
current method

10Ω 40 V 10Ω
A 20Ω E G
B

10 V 50 V
20Ω
10 V I1 I2 I3
10Ω

D C F H

Solution:- For mesh ABCDA,

- I1 × 1 0 -  I 1 - I 2 × 2 0 - 1 0 = 0
 3 I1 - 2 I 2 = - 1 (1 )

For mesh BEFCB,

4 0 -I 2 × 2 0 + 1 0 -  I 2 -I 3 × 1 0 -  I 2 -I 1 × 2 0 = 0
 2 I1 -5 I 2 + I 3 = -5 (2 )

For mesh EGHFE,

-1 0  5 0   I 3  I 2   1 0  10  0
I3
 I 2 -2 I 3 = -4 (3 )

Equation (2) x 2 + Equation (3)

4 I1 - 9 I 2 = -1  4 
4


Solving eqn (1) & eqn (4)

I1 = 1 A, I2 = 2 A, I3 = 3 A
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Nodal Analysis:
Statement:- This method determines branch currents in the circuit and also
voltages at individual nodes.

The following steps are adopted in this method:-

 Identify all the nodes in the network.

 One of these nodes is taken as reference node in at zero potential

 The node voltages are measured w.r.t the reference node

 KCL to find current expression for each node

 This method is easier if all the current sources are present. If any voltage
source is present, convert it to current source
 The number of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n-1) where ‘n’
is the number of independent nodes.

Explanation:-

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Hence,

 Node voltage multiplied by sum of all the conductance connected to this

node. This term is positive

 The node voltage at the other end of each branch (connected to this node
multiplied by conductance of this branch). This term is negative.

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Example:- Use nodal analysis to find currents in the different branches of the
circuit shown below.

(Supplementary Exam July- 2004)

Solution:-

Let V1 and V2 are the voltages of two nodes as shown in Fig below

Applying KCL to node-1, we get

12  V1 0  V1 V2  V1
  0
2 1 3
 36  3V1  6V1  2V2  2V1  0

  11V1  2V2  36...............(1)

Again applying KCL to node-2, we get:-

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V1  V 2 0  V2 6  V2
   0
3 5 4
 2 0V1  4 7V 2  9 0  0

 2 0V1  4 7V 2   9 0 ...............( 2 )

Solving Eq (1) and (2) we get V1 = 3.924 Volt and V2 = 3.584 volt

12-V1 = 12-3.924 =4.038 A

Current through 2  resistance =
2 2
0-V1
Current through 1  resistance = =-3.924 A
1

V1 -V2
Current through 3  resistance = 3 =0.1133 A

0-V2
Current through 5  resistance = =-0.7168 A
5
6- V2
Current through 4  resistance = =0.604
4

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Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

It states that “In any linear active network, maximum power is

transferred from a source to a load when the value of load resistance is equal
to the value of source resistance.” This theorem finds its application when it is
desired to obtain maximum power transfer from an active network to an
external load resistor.

Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

Consider the below DC two terminal network.

The original two terminal circuit is replaced with a Thevenin‟s equivalent

circuit across the variable load resistance. The current through the load for any
value of load resistance is
Vs
I =
L Rs + RL
The Power absorbed by the load is
P L = IL 2 × R L

2
Vs
=( ) × RL
R s + RL

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From the above expression, the power delivered depends on the values of RTH
and RL, but mainly on the load resistance RL(as RTH is constant). To find the
exact value of RL, we apply differentiation to PL with respect to RL and equating
it to zero as shown below:

(Rs + RL) − 2RL = 0

R L = Rs
Therefore, this is the condition of matching the load where the maximum power
transfer occurs when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin‟s resistance of
the circuit. By substituting the RTH = RL in the previous equation, we get: The
maximum power delivered to the load is
or Pmax= IL2 x (Rs + RL)
but R L = R Pmax = 2 IL2 RLs---------------(power input)
Therefore, the efficiency under the condition of maximum power transfer is:
Efficiency = PowerOutput /Power Input × 100

= I 2 R / 2 I 2 R × 100
L L L L

= 50%

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STAR-DELTA CONVERSION
Need:- Complicated networks can be simplified by successively replacing delta
mesh to star equivalent system and vice-versa.

In delta network, three resistors are connected in delta fashion (∆) and in star
network three resistors are connected in wye (Y) fashion.

Fig. 1.4.1.

a) Delta connection b) Star connection

1.4.1. Delta to Star Conversion:- From Fig. 1.4.1 (a), ∆ : Between A & B,
there are two parallel path.
Resistance between terminal A & B = AB  BC CA 
R R R


RAB  RBC  RCA

From Fig. 1.4.1 (b), STAR: Between A & B two series resistances are
there RA + RB. So, terminal resistances have to be the same.

 R BC 
 R C A .................(1)
R A  R B  R A B

R A B  R B C  R C A

R B  R C  R B C  RC A  R A B .................( 2 )
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R A B  R B C  R C A

RC  RC A  R AB  R B C 
.................( 3 )

R A 

R A B  R B C  R C A

Eq {(1)-(2)}+(3) & Solving,-

R AB  RCA .................(4)
R 
A
R R R
AB BC CA

R AB  RBC .................(5)
R 
B
R R R
AB BC CA

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RC A  R B C
R  .................( 6 )
C
R  R  R
AB BC CA

Easy way to remember:- 


Product of two adjacent arms of delta
Any armof star connection 
sum of arms of delta

Star to Delta conversion

Eq {(1) X (2)}+(2) X (3)+ (3) X (1) & Simplifying,-
R R  R B RC  R C R A  R  R R R
R  A B  A B
AB A B
RC RC
R R C
R  R  R  B

B C B C
R A

R  R R  R C R A

C A C A
R B

Easy way to remember:- Resistance between two terminals of delta = sum of star
resistance connected to those terminals + product of the same to resistance
divided by the third resistance.

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Example(delta to star):- Convert the following Delta

Resistive Network into an equivalentStar Network.

NETWORK THEOREMS
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

1. Superposition theorem
Statement:- In a network of linear resistances containing more than one

generator (or source of emf), the current which flows at any point is the sum
of all the currents which would flow at that point if each generator were
considered separately and all the other generators replaced for the time being
by resistances equal to their internal resistance.

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1. THEVENIN’S THEOREM:-
Statement:- Any pair of terminals AB of a linear active network may be
replaced by an equivalent voltage source in series with an equivalent
resistance Rth. The value of Vth (called the Thevenin’s voltage) is equal to
potential difference between the terminals AB when they are open
circuited, and Rth is the equivalent resistance looking into the network at
AB with the independent active sources set to zero i.e with all the
independent voltage sources short-circuited and all the independent
current sources open- circuited.
Example:- Find VX by first finding VTH and RTH to the left of A-B

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