Motor Control, Learning

and Development
An understanding of the scientific principles underpinning the learning and
execution of fundamental and skilled movements is of central importance
in disciplines across the sport and exercise sciences. The second edition of
Motor Control, Learning and Development: Instant Notes offers students an
accessible, clear and concise introduction to the core concepts of motor
behavior, from learning through to developing expertise.
Including two brand new chapters on implicit versus explicit learning and
motor control and aging, this new edition is fully revised and updated, and covers:
c definitions, theories and measurements of motor control;
c information processing, neurological issues and sensory factors in control;
c theories and stages of motor learning;
c memory and feedback;
c the development of fundamental movement skills;
c and the application of theory to coaching and rehabilitation practice.
Highly illustrated and well-formatted, the book allows readers to grasp complex
ideas quickly, through learning objectives, research highlights, review questions
and activities, and encourages students to deepen their understanding through
further reading suggestions. This is important foundational reading for any
student taking classes in motor control, learning or behavior or skill acquisition,
or a clear and concise reference for any practicing sports coach, physical education
teacher or rehabilitation specialist.

Andrea Utley is a Reader in Motor Control and Development in the School of

Biomedical Sciences at the University of Leeds, UK.
Motor Control,
Learning and
Development
Instant Notes
Second Edition

Andrea Utley
Second edition published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2019 Andrea Utley

The right of Andrea Utley to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Routledge 2007

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Utley, Andrea, author.
Title: Motor control, learning and development : instant notes / Andrea Utley.
Description: Second edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY :
Routledge, 2019. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018042226| ISBN 9781138103863 (hbk.) |
ISBN 9781138103870 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781315102481 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Motor ability.
Classification: LCC BF295 .U85 2019 | DDC 152.3/34—dc23
LC record available at [Link]

ISBN: 978-1-138-10386-3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-10387-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-10248-1 (ebk)

Typeset in Palatino
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
To my sister Beverley (QFTOTAW)
C ontents

List of figures x
List of tables xiv
List of boxes xv
Prefacexvi
Acknowledgmentsxvii

1 – What is motor control? 1

Definition of terms 1
Origins of the field 4
Key players and motor control landmarks 5
Why study motor control? 7
Conclusion7

2 – Classification of skill 11
Definition of terms 11
Task perspective skill classifications 13
Classification from a performance proficiency perspective 19
Movement terminology 22
Conclusion24

3 – Measurement and assessment in motor control 27

Outcome measures 29
Performance measures 30
Developing technologies 37
Measuring learning 39
Measurement and rehabilitation 40
Validity and reliability 43
Conclusion44

4 – Theories of control 47
Reflex theories 48
Hierarchical theories 49
Dynamical systems theories 51
Ecological theories 54
Coordinative structure hypothesis 63
Conclusion66

5 – Information processing 71
Basic concepts 71
Reaction time and movement time 74
Simple, discriminative, choice and recognition reaction time 75
Factors affecting reaction time 76
Movement time and Fitts’ law 82
Anticipation83
Conclusion85
viii Contents

6 – Neurological issues 91
The nervous system 92
The neuron 93
The central nervous system 94
Control of movement by the brain 97
The peripheral nervous system 101
Conclusion102

7 – Sensory contributions to control 105

Proprioception and movement 105
The role of proprioception 108
Exteroceptive information 110
Eye movements 111
Conclusion121

8 – Theories of motor learning 125

Theories of motor learning 125
Adams’ closed-loop theory 128
Schmidt’s schema theory 130
Dynamical systems theory 135
Ecological theory 136
Constraints theory (Newell 1986) 136
Ecological perspective 138
Conclusion139

9 – Stages of motor learning 143

The Fitts and Posner three-stage model 144
Bernstein’s stage theory of motor learning 146
Gentile’s two-stage model 154
Indicators of learning 155
Conclusion157

10 – Memory 163
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multistore model 164
Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing model 171
Forgetting172
Disorders of memory 173
Enhancing memory 174
Conclusion175

11 – Implications for coaching and rehabilitation 177

Task analysis: breaking the task down into its component parts 179
Conditions of practice 182
Implementing practice variability: contextual interference 188
Conclusion195

12 – The role and function of feedback 201

Augmented feedback: what is it, what does it do
and do we really need it? 202
Clinical application of augmented feedback 202
Augmented feedback and learning skill 203
Contents ix

Types of augmented feedback 205

Different forms of KR and KP 207
Important considerations for giving augmented feedback 211
Children and augmented feedback 217
Conclusion219

13 – Explicit versus implicit learning 223

Definition of terms 223
The role of explicit and implicit learning 224
Internal and external foci of attention 228
Constrained action hypothesis 231
Conclusion231

14 – Motor development 235

Maturational perspective 236
Reflexes238
The process underlying development 242
Deficiencies of maturationalist explanations 243
Cognitive approaches to development 244
Spontaneous movements 246
A dynamical systems approach to motor development 249
Exploration and selection 251
Perception and action 254
Assessing motor development 256
Conclusion257

15 – Development of fundamental movement skills 263

The first two years 263
Two to seven years of age 264
Seven to puberty 264
Puberty onwards 264
Postural development 265
Development of locomotion: crawling, cruising, walking and running 269
Development of manual skills: grasping, reaching
and grasping, catching and throwing 274
Throwing289
Conclusion291

16 – Motor control and aging 299

Balance and falls 304
Gait305
Upper limb functions 305
Exercise/activity and aging 307
Conclusion310

Index313
F igures

1.1 In our daily lives we produce a whole host of movements such as

writing, sitting, standing, (a) more complex movements such as
whitewater kayaking (b) and complex movements that involve
multiple factors such as soccer (c) 2
1.2 Performance is observable; you can watch a climber complete a
route, for example 4
2.1 When paddling a kayak, the performer has to make many
adjustments due to environmental demands 13
2.2 A gymnastic routine is a perfect example of a serial task 15
2.3 The continuum of motor skills from gross to fine 16
2.4 When performing a skill we can examine both the process and the
outcome20
2.5 Classification of intrinsic hand movements with digits employed in
specific movement patterns 21
2.6 Anatomical terms 24
2.7 Planes (left) and axes (right) of the body 25
3.1 Mean distance walked by participants with spinal cord injury 29
3.2 Participant climbing with 3D skin markers 32
3.3 3D camera system 33
3.4 Displacement data of the wrist during a reach-and-grasp action 34
3.5 Ground reaction forces during barefoot jogging 34
3.6 Ground reaction forces during barefoot sprinting: Fx, Fy and Fz,
force in the x, y and z axes 35
3.7 Participant using a drive simulator where eye movements are recorded 36
3.8 Gait analysis using convention markers and a Bluetooth system 38
3.9 Learning curves 40
3.10 Time out of balance on a dynamic balance task 42
3.11 Peak velocity of each joint across three blocks of trials in the control
group during a catching task 42
4.1 We can change our posture and muscular involvement to
functionally achieve the same end result in different contexts 48
4.2 Model representing reflex theories of control 49
4.3 Closed-loop control 50
4.4 Open-loop control 50
4.5 Degrees of freedom of the joints of the arm 53
4.6 How linking two elements (a) can reduce the degrees of freedom
of movement; (b) demonstrates that by linking elements together
control is potentially simpler as fewer degrees of freedom of
movement have to be controlled at any one time 53
4.7 Cycling involves the control and coordination of multiple degrees of
freedom in a changing environment 54
4.8 The basketball player has to adapt and change their coordination as
the environment changes 55
4.9 Changes in the optical array can be caused by variation of the light,
and also by the movement of an individual 56
4.10 Performing manual tasks requires control of the hands, a high level
of coordination between other limbs and postural control 58
Figures xi

4.11 Door (a) has a handle, therefore we will pull the handle to open the
door. Door (b) has a flat plate, so we will push it to open it. 60
4.12 In long jumping, an accurate take-off is vital 62
4.13 Optical acceleration increases when the ball is about to land ahead
of the individual (a); remains constant when it lands where the eyes
are (b); and decreases when the ball lands behind (c) 63
4.14 Interlimb Coupling 64
4.15 Representation of the functional interaction in Bernstein’s levels of
construction of movements 65
5.1 A flow chart showing a simple information-processing model 72
5.2 A hockey player makes a decision on how to play a shot and then
responds with a particular action 73
5.3 A complex information-processing model 74
5.4 Reaction time can be measured using a reaction timer which can
provide both reaction time and movement time data 77
5.5 Game situations often place the performer in a situation where there
are multiple stimuli and response alternatives 77
5.6 The relationship between number of response alternatives and
reaction time 78
5.7 A tennis example of the psychological refractory period 80
5.8 A Bassin timer can be used to measure anticipation 84
5.9 Percentage time spent viewing a location for successful (SE) and
non-successful (NE) goalkeepers when attempting to save a penalty 85
6.1 Organization of the nervous system 92
6.2 A typical neuron or nerve cell 93
6.3 Structures of the brain 97
6.4 Linkages between the motor cortex and the other CNS regions
associated with motor control 98
6.5 The peripheral nervous system 101
7.1 In order to know our position, orientation and speed when
moving we use a range of exteroceptive information and
proprioception106
7.2 The swimmer needs to know the position of her limbs and the angle
of the joints 107
7.3 The vestibular apparatus 108
7.4 When performing, a mass of visual information about the position
of opponents and teammates is available 111
7.5 Comparisons of (A) mean head-ball and (B) gaze-head angles for
elite and club-level batters 114
7.6 A cricketer will track the ball in an attempt to make contact at the
appropriate time 118
8.1 Performance is influenced by the level of skill of the player, the rules
of the game and the environmental conditions 126
8.2 In the early stages of acquisition of a skill, knowledge of results is
very important 129
8.3 Performance as a function of practice days: (a) Average and
confidence interval for group performance; (b) Average performance
for each individual; (c) Average performance per day (different
lines) and blocks (along abscissa) 135
8.4 Constraints that interact and guide the system 136
8.5 The coupling of perception and action 138
xii Figures

9.1 The stages of learning from the Fitts and Posner (1967) model placed
on a continuum representing amount of practice time required and
changing level of attention demands associated with each
of the three stages 144
9.2 Improvement across four testing conditions for tandem and
single-leg stance 146
9.3 Learning to balance involves all three stages of learning as
indicated by Bernstein (1967) 148
9.4 Person on slalom ski apparatus 149
9.5 Mean frequency of movement 149
9.6 Mean amplitude of movement 150
9.7 Standard deviation of the ankle, knee and hip movement 150
9.8 The expert violinist freezes degrees of freedom at the shoulder while
releasing degrees of freedom at the elbow and wrist, in the bow arm 153
9.9 Activity: Stages of learning 156
10.1 The memory process controlling learning of a new skill 165
10.2 The multistore model of memory 165
10.3 When performing an event such as slalom canoe, the performer has
to generate the right movements and remember the route 167
10.4 Participant demonstrating the use of similar equipment 170
10.5 Memory task 174
11.1 Whole and part practice data during acquisition, retention and
transfer (Ret, retention; Trans, transfer) 180
11.2 Skills can be broken down into component parts 181
11.3 Massed practice of a forehand smash 184
11.4 Skills can be acquired using a variety of practice schedules 185
11.5 Results for massed practice and distributed practice groups during
practice and retention 186
11.6 The benefits of variable practice on retention 188
11.7 The relationship between variable practice, contextual interference
and practice activity in soccer 189
11.8 Time taken to tie (a) simple-knot group (novice) and (b) complex-
knot group (experts) in varying contextual-interference situations 193
12.1 The two forms of feedback: intrinsic or sensory feedback provided
by the performer’s receptors (see Chapter 7) and extrinsic or
augmented feedback provided by an external source 204
12.2 The interaction between action and perception with feedback as a
key component 204
12.3 P, post; S, acquisition; R, retention; T, transfer for the control and
feedback groups 206
12.4 The performer gets ongoing knowledge of results by reading the
display as they are engaged in the task 207
12.5 Players can receive feedback from watching video recordings and/
or detailed analysis data of their performance 208
12.6 The timing of when to give knowledge of results can be varied 212
12.7 Performance of the four groups 213
12.8 Average root-mean (RMS) for two groups, one receiving 100% KR,
the other 50% KR (Imm, immediate feedback; Del, delayed feedback) 216
12.9 Performance scores for four groups of differing summary lengths
during acquisition and transfer tests on an anticipatory timing task 217
12.10 Augmented feedback is extremely useful for children 218
Figures xiii

13.1 Implicit vs. explicit learning, with learning strategies that

might be employed 224
13.2 Putting performance of the learning groups (first retention; transfer;
second retention) 226
13.3 Mean and standard errors for the implicit learning groups 227
13.4 Mean and standard errors for the explicit learning groups 228
13.5 Learning to putt in golf is a skill that has received much research
attention. This is probably due to the discrete nature of the task. 230
14.1 The seven stages of erect locomotion (McGraw 1945) 237
14.2 Various primitive reflexes 240
14.3 A newborn will use the grasp reflex for support 240
14.4 Postural reflexes 241
14.5 Locomotive reflexes 242
14.6 Spontaneous leg movements as identified by Thelen (1979) 247
14.7 Stable and unstable attractors: (A) a very unstable attractor; (B) a
very stable attractor 251
14.8 Young infants are keen to explore their environment 252
14.9 In a series of studies, Adolph (2000) and Adolph et al. (1993)
examined infants’ responses to differing locomotor contexts 255
15.1 The progression of postural control 266
15.2 During the first nine months most children will stand with some
support or independently 267
15.3 The progression of locomotive ability 269
15.4 Young infants crawling 270
15.5 Stages in running development 273
15.6 Young children are able to use both hands to complete a range of
manual tasks 274
15.7 Development of manual skill 276
15.8 Precision grip (a) and palmar grip (b) 277
15.9 Many daily activities involve the hands working together: (a)
one hand in support and one using precision and (b) one hand in
support and one producing power 278
15.10 A young infant reaching and grasping for an object 279
15.11 As children develop, their movements are less rigid and more
adaptable, indicating a release in degrees of freedom 285
15.12 Stages in throwing development 290
16.1 Digits can become more rigid with aging and joints can be affected
by arthritis 300
16.2 An overview of musculoskeletal aging 302
16.3 Factors contributing to falls 304
16.4 Aerobic activity such as dog walking is an excellent form of exercise
for elderly individuals 308
16.5 Exercise programs for the elderly are very beneficial.
(The adults above are engaging in dance activities
organized by Yorkshire Dance.) 309
T ables

2.1 Discrete, serial and continuous skills 14

2.2 The continuum from motor skill to cognitive skill 14
2.3 Gentile’s classification of skill showing the components of the 16
categories17
3.1 Common outcome measures 29
3.2 Description of catching behavior in relation to points scoring scale
of Wickstrom (1983, p. 163) 31
3.3 Examples of some of the measurement tools used as part of
movement skills assessment in a variety of contexts 41
5.1 T1, T2, T3 and T4 denote the duration of the stimulus detection,
identification, response selection and response programming
respectively (modified from Miller and Low 2001) 76
5.2 Reaction times in each condition 79
7.1 Eye movements and their function 112
7.2 The type of information produced by each receptor organ and its
transducer120
10.1 Types of forgetting 172
12.1 Comparison of KR (knowledge of results) and KP (knowledge of
performance)205
13.1 A comparison of internal and external foci of attention 229
14.1 Primitive reflexes, their function, and age when present 239
15.1 Some of the movement problems that children with
developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and
cerebral palsy (CP) might encounter 265
15.2 Some examples of bimanual movements typically used 283
16.1 Key areas of change and the areas of motor control that may be
affected300
16.2 Medical conditions associated with gait and balance disorders 305
16.3 NHS Guides for Exercise 309
B oxes

5.1 Factors affecting anticipation (Jackson and Farrow 2005) 85

6.1 Major motor pathways and their functions 99
7.1 Receptors that provide proprioceptive information 106
7.2 Phases of aiming/reaching (Woodworth 1899) 115
8.1 Definitions 126
8.2 Advantages and disadvantages of Adams’ (1971)
theory of learning 130
8.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Schmidt’s (1975)
theory of learning 134
9.1 Power law of practice 143
10.1 Problems with the multistore model of memory 166
10.2 Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) multistore view of memory 168
11.1 Adaptations that can be made to assist learning. Adapted from
Utley et al. (2001) 181
12.1 Major characteristics of concurrent and terminal feedback 211
12.2 Key points concerning precision of feedback (Newell 1991) 215
P reface

The first edition of this book aimed to produce a resource for undergraduates
undertaking one of the many sports science or sport and exercise science degrees
that are now available. I also aimed to produce a book that would be useful to
individuals taking sports coaching courses or training to be physical education
teachers or physiotherapists. The second edition has the same aims, but there
is now a stronger reference to work that is relevant for physiotherapists and/or
health care professionals. Many sections of the book also contain information that
is relevant for those studying at the postgraduate level. The early sections set the
scene by defining the field and discussing measurement. This leads to theories
of control and chapters that deal with how we control movement and how we
learn to control movement. An additional chapter has been added on implicit
and explicit learning, and more information has been added on the implications
for rehabilitation. The final section considers the development of motor skills, as
I felt that this was an important aspect that needed to be considered and that is
rarely covered in texts on motor control. In this second edition, this section has
been extended to include a chapter on motor control and aging. The topics cov-
ered in this text provide foundation knowledge vital for any individual who is
working in the movement context as a teacher, coach or therapist. Examples are
given from recent and relevant research, further reading is suggested and activ-
ities are provided to strengthen understanding. Each chapter also includes three
revision questions to help test the reader’s understanding or to provide sugges-
tions for revision. I have also attempted to provide examples from a range of
sports, activities and clinical populations that are especially relevant to the UK
and Europe. Each chapter can be read in isolation, but links are made and related
topics highlighted. I hope you enjoy this book and that the content helps improve
your practice and knowledge in relation to sport, education and rehabilitation.

Andrea Utley
A cknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge the support of Bryan Jackson for proofreading the
original texts. In addition, I would like to thank Laura and Noah for putting up
with interrupted weekends during the writing phase.
Chapter 1

What is motor control?

Key Notes

Motor behavior Any voluntary action or movement to achieve a goal.

Motor control Ability to maintain and change posture and movement in a variety of
contexts.

Motor development The process of change that a person passes through starting from birth.

Motor skill Ability to reliably and consistently achieve a goal through learned
movement.

Motor learning A relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of practice or

experience.

Related topics Classification of skill (2) Measurement in motor control (3)

In our daily lives we all produce a whole host of movements that are crucial to our
independence, interactions with the world, personal safety and at times rehabilita-
tion (Muratori et al. 2013). Motor control is the study of movements, the mechanisms
that enable movements to be produced and the processes that underlie control, skill
acquisition and retention. When studying motor control we are asking questions
about what needs to be controlled, how we learn to do this, and how we are able to
coordinate the vast range of simple and complex movements that we perform. The
term motor control also reflects a multidisciplinary approach to asking and answer-
ing questions about control. Knowledge of motor control and motor learning
should form a fundamental part of any individual’s theoretical background who is
involved in sport, physical activity and rehabilitation (Newell and Verhoeven 2017).
Equally, an understanding of motor development is crucial if you are involved in
teaching coaching or planning interventions that involve movement. This section
provides an overview of the field of motor control, defines the terms used and con-
siders why we need to study motor control, learning and development.

Definition of terms It is through movement that we interact with the world either by moving around
in different contexts or handling objects, or by dealing with other people (Fig-
ure 1.1). In order to do this we have to control a mass of different movements
that vary in complexity and speed while dealing with multiple or related inputs.
A range of terms is used to define movement, and as a starting point to the
remainder of this book, it is important that these are clearly defined. We have
used the term motor control as a starting point; however, the term motor behav-
ior is often used (see Chapter 2 for further definitions). Many researchers use the
term motor behavior to describe any motor action or movement that is used to
complete a task or achieve a goal. The study of motor behavior is then divided
into three areas: motor control, motor learning and motor development. It is use-
ful to understand the distinction between these areas.
2 What is motor control?

Motor control
The starting point in defining motor control is to remember that it is the study
of the nature and cause of movements or actions. When studying motor control
we are studying postures and movements and the mechanisms that enable us
to move. There are three key aspects to motor control that have to be taken into
account. First, motor control is concerned with the study of action. When we exam-
ine motor control, we often consider a particular action such as running, catching

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.1 In our daily lives we produce a whole host of movements such as writing, sitting,
standing, (a) more complex movements such as whitewater kayaking (b) and complex move-
ments that involve multiple factors such as soccer (c).
What is motor control? 3

(c)

Figure 1.1 Continued.

or picking up an object. However, it must be remembered that an important part

of movement is the interaction between the environment and the individual. Sec-
ond, as we move, we use sensory information about our position in the envi-
ronment and the position of our body in relation to the environment and other
body parts. Motor control is therefore also concerned with the study of percep-
tion. Finally, we must also remember that movement involves cognitive processes
in order to organize perception and action. Therefore motor control is also con-
cerned with the study of cognition and, within this, motor planning, which refers
to the processes related to preparation for movement. Wong et al. (2015) suggest a
definition of motor planning that encompasses only those processes necessary for
a movement to be executed and only processes that are strictly movement related.
Another feature of the study of motor control is the formation of theories, the
testing of theories, and the use of models to understand movement. A theory of
motor control is a group of abstract ideas about the nature and the cause of move-
ment. A model is a representation of something, usually a simplified version of
the real thing. The better the model, the better it will predict how the real thing
will behave in a real situation. Throughout this book, we will consider theories
and models of control in order to critically assess human motor control.

Motor learning
Motor learning is an area that has received a mass of attention from a range of
researchers who are interested in examining how we learn and retain movement
skills. Learning is defined as a change in a person’s capability to perform a skill.
Wolpert et al. (2001) state that learning involves a change in behavior that occurs
as a result of interaction with the environment that is distinct from maturation. It
must be remembered that this is inferred from a relatively permanent improve-
ment in performance as a result of practice or experience. Two terms that should
not be confused are learning and performance (see Chapter 2). Performance is
observable; you can see a footballer take a penalty or watch a climber tackle a rock
face. Learning, however, cannot be directly observed and can only be inferred
from the nature of the movement produced (Figure 1.2).
4 What is motor control?

Figure 1.2 Performance is observable; you can watch a climber complete a route, for example.

Motor development
Motor development refers to the process of change that a person passes through
as they grow and mature. Development, according to Keogh and Sugden (1985,
p. 6), is an ‘adaptive change towards competence’. The human adult is capable
of performing a variety of motor skills and demonstrates a high level of control
and dexterity. The development of motor control is complex and involves the
development of many behaviors (see Chapter 14). Motor development in children
is so rapid and so apparent that we sometimes forget that motor development
is a lifelong process – learning to walk for example. During the development of
motor control, children are establishing the movement patterns and control syn-
ergies that will be used throughout life. This development has implications when
studying how movements are coordinated and how this is influenced by task
constraints and the environmental context.

Origins of the The field of motor control emerged from two separate fields of study: neuro-
field physiology and psychology. These fields developed separately, and it was only
in the 1970s that they came together and motor control became an area of study.
Many of the early studies examined tasks such as hand movements (Bowditch
and Southard 1882) and learning tasks such as typing and Morse code (Bryan
and Harter 1899; Hill et al. 1913). Bryan and Harter’s (1899) first formal study of
skill acquisition looked at the way people learn to communicate with Morse code.
They noted that:
c learning is discontinuous in nature (plateaus)
c we tend to learn small units and combine these into larger units, then even
larger units (chunking).
The second point is still largely credible today. It was Woodworth (1899), how-
ever, who was the first to attempt to fully understand motor skills by comparing
What is motor control? 5

fast and slow movements. He asked subjects to move a pencil back and forth
through a slit, with the direction reversing once two marks had been passed. The
rate of moving the pencil was controlled by a metronome, and subjects performed
one set with their eyes open and another set with their eyes closed. He discov-
ered that when subjects had their eyes closed, the mean absolute error remained
more or less constant as velocity decreased. When subjects had their eyes open,
the mean absolute error decreased as velocity decreased. Therefore, accuracy
improved as movements slowed in the eyes-open condition but not in the eyes-
closed condition. Woodworth concluded that in the eyes-closed condition, sub-
jects’ movements were entirely preprogrammed; he referred to this as an initial
impulse. In the eyes-open condition, he concluded that the movements were both
preprogrammed and corrected with current control (visual feedback).
What is interesting to note is that many of these early studies were concerned
with improving human performance in the workplace or in connection with the
work of the military. The next part of this section outlines some of the landmark
studies from the early work to that conducted in the last few years.

Key players and The work of Woodworth (1899) has already been covered, but a number of other
motor control studies have been conducted that have formed the basic foundation of research in
landmarks the area of motor control. A number of the key researchers and their studies are
reviewed here in chronological order.

Charles Sherrington
Work on reflexes and sensory receptors by Sherrington (1906) formed the founda-
tion of a number of major concepts in motor control. He was the first to conduct
studies on sensory receptors and he was the first to use the term proprioception.

Edward Thorndike
Thorndike (1914) was interested in learning and he developed the term ‘law of
effect’, which basically states that responses that are rewarded tend to be repeated.
This theory still influences teaching and coaching today and is still studied by
psychologists.

Franklin Henry
It is Franklin Henry who did the most to advance the study of motor behavior
in relation to physical education and movement studies. He developed a whole
new approach to research which combined psychological techniques with empir-
ical laboratory-style experiments. Based in the Physical Education department
of Berkeley, California, in the 30s and 40s, he is considered to be the founder of
motor behavior research.

William Hick
Hick (1952) looked at the relationship between reaction time and the number of
response alternatives. He found that choice reaction time is linearly related to the
log of the number of stimulus–response alternatives. Therefore, Hick’s law states
that reaction time (RT) increases by a linear amount (about 150 ms) each time the
number of response alternatives doubles.

Paul Fitts
Fitts (1954) conducted an experiment in which subjects moved a stylus back and
forth between two targets as quickly as possible. The distance between the targets
6 What is motor control?

and the width of the targets was varied. Fitts found that the relationship between
movement time, distance between the targets and target width was linear. This
resulted in the development of Fitts’ law, an equation linking the distance trav-
eled, size of object and movement time. Fitts found that the relationship between
the amplitude (A) of the movement, the target width (W), and the resulting move-
ment time (MT) was given by the following equation:

MT = a + b [log 2 ( 2 A / W )]

where MT is the average movement time, and a and b are constants.

Nicolai Bernstein
The writings of Bernstein have had a huge impact on the field of motor control, and
his work received the most attention some 20 years after it was written, once it was
translated into English. Bernstein raised a number of questions about the control
and coordination of movements (1967). He tried to characterize the study of move-
ments in terms of the problems of co-coordinating and controlling a complex system
of biokinematic links. In particular, he worked on the issue of degrees of freedom.

Jack Adams
Jack Adams developed the ‘closed loop theory’ of control (1971). This theory has
been a great landmark in learning theory. Regardless of whether it is correct, it has
inspired a great deal of research into motor learning.

Research highlight: John Whiting (1929–2001)

The term ‘keep your eye on the ball’ is often used in sport and by the media. This phrase was first
used by John Whiting, who conducted a number of experiments on catching, with the emphasis on
the importance of input variables on performance. Working in the Department of Physical Education
at the University of Leeds, he produced the seminal book Acquiring Ball Skill in 1969 (Whiting 1969).
The studies conducted at Leeds on catching found the following:
c it is unnecessary to view the entire trajectory of a ball
c only 60 ms are available to close the fingers around the ball when it is moving at 10 m/s
c fingers started to close before the ball touched the hand.
These studies were ahead of their time and, interestingly, Whiting focused on the dynamic task of
catching when most other researchers focused on discrete non-dynamic tasks. In 1975 he started
the Journal of Human Movement Studies, further adding to the legacy and contribution to sports
science.

Richard Schmidt
In 1975 Schmidt published a paper proposing a new theory of learning. Schema
theory was a challenge to the work of Adams, and this new theory was a catalyst
for a whole host of learning studies. An important part of Schmidt’s work was the
idea of a generalized motor program (GMP) which addresses the storage issue
when learning new skills. Richard Schmidt was also the founder of the Journal of
Motor Behaviour in 1969. This journal is, to this day, one of the leading journals in
the field.
What is motor control? 7

James Gibson
Gibson (1979) introduced the ecological approach to control and learning which
emphasizes the interrelationship between movement and perception. He sug-
gested that the environment has ‘affordances’ or ‘invariant properties’, which
allow us to perceive directly the potential uses of objects. Gibson’s work has
resulted in a vast range of research that examines perceptual variables and the
control of actions.

Michael Turvey
Turvey (1973, 1977, 1990) has pushed forward work from an ecological perspec-
tive, taking the work of Gibson to a new dimension. He has conducted world-lead-
ing work on the coordination of movement, especially the concept of coordinative
structures. However, he is probably best known for his work in perception and
action, explaining how we apply laws of control, extract information from the
environment and use it to regulate activity.

Esther Thelen
Thelen’s main area of study was motor development, and she conducted research
that changed our understanding of human development. In the 1990s she applied
principles of dynamical systems to human motor development with a particu-
lar emphasis on walking. She demonstrated that development took place as a
result of a complex interplay between the physical growth, the environment and
the central nervous system. Her work identified that newborn infants produce a
range of spontaneous movements that are organized and temporally changing as
the child develops.

Why study motor As motor control is concerned with the study of movement, it is vital that any
control? individual who is concerned with coaching, teaching sport or physical education
or is involved in rehabilitation has a good grasp of all areas within the field of
motor control. An understanding of the execution of all processes that lead to
skilled human movement as well as factors leading to the breakdown of such
skills is needed. When studying, we are asking questions about control and coor-
dination that have implications for sport, activity and rehabilitation (Feldman
and Meijer 1999). Understanding the processes involved in performing and learn-
ing motor skills will therefore enable practitioners to:
● plan and deliver appropriate curriculum materials
● conduct more effective and targeted practice and rehabilitation experiences.
A practitioner is then better placed to plan or develop procedures to assist motor
learning or motor development or to assist the performer in enhancing motor
control. All coaches, teachers and clinicians must ensure that any work they con-
duct is set with a framework of a sound theoretical starting point. An understand-
ing of motor control is therefore vital.

Conclusion This section provides the starting point to the rest of the book by defining key
terms which will be used throughout the remaining sections. In addition some
of the many landmark studies and key researchers have been introduced;
much of their work will be considered in greater detail in other sections of
the text.
8 What is motor control?

Further reading Elliott, D.E., Helsen, W.F. and Chua, R. (2001) A century later: Woodworth’s
(1899) two-component model of goal-directed aiming. Psychological Bulletin
127, 342–357.
Kugler, N.P., Kelso, J.A.S. and Turvey, M.T. (1980) On the concept of coordinative
structures as dissipative structures: I. Theoretical lines of convergence. In: Stel-
mach, G.E. and Requin, J. (eds) Tutorials in Motor Behavior. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Latash, M.L. (2001) Classics in Movement Science. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.
Savelsbergh, G. and Davids, K. (2002) ‘Keeping the eye on the ball’: The leg-
acy of John Whiting (1929–2001) in sport science. Journal of Sports Science 20,
79–82.
Swinnen, S. (1994) Motor control. In: Encyclopedia of Human Behavior. Academic
Press, New York, vol. 3, pp. 229–243.
Thelen, E. and Smith, L. (1995) A dynamic Systems Approach to Development of Cog-
nition and Action. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Thelen, E. and Ulrich, B. (1991) Hidden skills: A dynamic systems analysis of
treadmill stepping during the first year. Monographs of the Society for Research in
Child Development 56(1, Serial No. 223).
Thorndike, E.L. (1932) The Fundamentals of Learning. Teachers’ College Press, New
York.
Turvey, M.T. (1973) On peripheral and central processes in vision: Inferences from
an information-processing analysis of masking with patterned stimuli. Psycho-
logical Review 80, 1–52.
Turvey, M.T. (1977) Contrasting orientations to the theory of visual information
processing. Psychological Review 84, 67–88.
Turvey, M.T. (1977). Preliminaries to a theory of action with reference to vision.
In R. Shaw and J Bransford (Eds), Perceiving, acting, and knowing (pp. 211–265).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Turvey, M.T. (1990) Coordination. American Psychologist 45(8), 938–953.
Turvey, M.T. and Fonseca, S. (2009) Nature of motor control: Perspectives and
issues. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 629, 93–123.
Whiting, H.T.A. (1969) Acquiring Ball Skill: A Psychological Interpretation. Bell and
Sons Ltd, York.

Review questions
What is the difference between motor control and motor learning?
Why do we need to study motor control, learning and development?
Why is Thelen’s work so important?

References Adams, J.A. (1971) A closed loop theory of motor learning. Journal of Motor Behav-
ior 3, 111–149.
Bernstein, N. (1967) The Co-Ordination and Regulation of Movement. Oxford:
Pergamon.
Bowditch, H.P. and Southard, W.F. (1882) A comparison of sight and touch. The
Journal of Physiology 3, 232–254.
Bryan, W.L. and Harter, N. (1899) Studies on the telegraphic language: The acqui-
sition of a hierarchy of habits. Psychological Review 6, 345–375.
Feldman, A.G. and Meijer, O.G. (1999) Discovering the right questions in motor
control: Movements. Motor Control 3, 105–135.
What is motor control? 9

Fitts, P.M. (1954) The information capacity of the human motor system in con-
trolling the amplitude of movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology 47,
381–391.
Gibson, J.J. (1979) The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Houghton Mifflin
Company, Boston.
Hick, W.E. (1952) On the rate of gain of information. Q J Exp Psychol 4, 11–26.
Hill, L.B., Rejall, A.E. and Thorndike, E.L. (1913) Practice in the case of typewrit-
ing. Pedag Semin 20, 516–529.
Keogh, J.F. and Sugden, D.A. (1985) Movement Skill Development. New York:
Macmillan.
Muratori, M.L., Lamberg, E.E., Quinn, L. and Duff, S.V. (2013) Applying princi-
ples of motor learning and control to upper extremity rehabilitation. J Hand
Ther 26(2), 94–103.
Newell, K.M. and Verhoeven, F.M. (2017) Movement rehabilitation: Are the prin-
ciples of re-learning in the recovery of function the same as those of original
learning? Disabil Rehabil 39(2), 121–126.
Schmidt, R.A. (1975) A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychol Rev
82, 225–260.
Thorndike, E.L. (1914) Educational Psychology. New York: Columbia University.
Turvey, M.T. (1973) On peripheral and central processes in vision: Inferences from
an information-processing analysis of masking with patterned stimuli. Psycho-
logical Review 80, 1–52.
Turvey, M.T. (1977) Contrasting orientations to the theory of visual information
processing. Psychological Review 84, 67–88.
Turvey, M.T. (1990) Coordination. American Psychologist 45(8), 938–953.
Sherrington, C.S. (1906) Integrative Action of the Nervous System. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
Whiting, H.T.A. (1969) Acquiring Ball Skill: A Psychological Interpretation. London:
Bell and Sons Ltd.
Wolpert, D.M., Ghahramani, Z. and Flanagan, J.R. (2001) Perspectives and prob-
lems in motor learning. Trends Cogn Sci 11, 487–494.
Wong, A.L., Haith, A.M. and Krakauer, J.W. (2015) Motor planning. Neuroscientist
21(4), 385–398.
Woodworth, R.S. (1899) The accuracy of voluntary movements. The Psychological
Review: Monograph Supplement 3(3).
Chapter 2

Classification of skill

Key Notes

Motor skills Actions or tasks that aim to achieve a specific goal effectively and
efficiently.

Actions Goal-directed motion made by body or limb movements.

Movements Behavioral characteristics of the body parts required to complete a

particular action or skill.

Task perspective Tends to focus more on common characteristics of the task without in-
depth analysis of the process.

Performance Considers features that are the characteristics of a skilled performer or

perspective performance.

Related topics Measurement in motor control (3) (The information in this chapter will
underpin all other chapters.)

A good starting point when considering control and coordination is to think about
how to define movement and describe movements and to reflect on how they are
classified. Defining movement enables us to describe complex action with simple
statements that are understood by coaches, teachers, clinicians and performers.
By using classifications we are better able to make generalizations and discuss
principles from the same framework of understanding. Burton and Miller (1998,
p. 42) state that:

Consistent definitions of key terms are a prerequisite for discussing and

understanding movement.

It is therefore important to develop a framework of terms that we can use to

describe and classify movement. Classification of movement patterns and skills
provides further clues as to the nature of the anatomical, motor and mechanical
requirements of a particular group of skills. As we will see in later chapters, clas-
sification also provides a framework for measurement and assessment (Shishov
et al. 2017). This section aims to define terms that we use to describe movement,
outline how we classify movement and provide an overview of specialist terms
that are used to summarize complex actions.

Definition of When discussing or describing motor control there are many terms and classifi-
terms cations that are used in a specific way by researchers, coaches, teachers and ther-
apists. We can all think of the terms that we generally use and that our teachers
and coaches use, but do we have a common definition of them? It is important
that we not only understand the terms used in motor control but also use them in
the appropriate way. The first distinction that needs to be made is the difference
12 Classification of skill

between skills, actions and movements. In motor control literature you will see
the terms motor skills and movement skills used. These terms are often used to
describe human performance, but what do they actually mean? The list below
defines skills, actions and movements.
c Skills (motor skills): actions or tasks that aim to achieve a specific goal efficiently.
The term skill is commonly used, and in our daily lives we perform a whole range
of skills that vary in complexity. It must also be remembered that skills are learnt;
how we learn and when we learn these skills will be discussed in Chapters 8, 9
and 15. We must also remember that at times skills have to be relearnt because of
injury or illness. In this text we are using the term motor skill to describe a task
that has a specific goal, such as catching a ball. There are a number of characteris-
tics that are common to motor skills. The first is that motor skills have to be learnt
and at times relearnt. Second, motor skills also have a purpose and are used to
achieve or complete a task or goal. Finally, a motor skill also requires some vol-
untary body or limb movement. The term voluntary is important, as at times we
produce reflex actions, but these are very different from voluntary motor skills.
Another distinction is also the difference between skills and abilities. Schmidt and
Lee (2011) define skills as modifiable by practice and experience and abilities as
relatively stable.
c Actions: goal-directed movements that consist of body/limb movements.
The term action is generally used for a particular motor skill. For example, you
may say ‘the action of bowling’. This may cause some confusion, but we can
assume that the terms action and motor skill are often used in the same context.
Keogh and Sugden (1985, p. 7) state that action is ‘concerned with the movement’s
intent and function and its interplay with the environment’. Taking account of
the interaction between the action to be performed and the movement context
provides a richer overview of the nature of movement production. This will be
explored in detail when we consider two-dimensional classifications of skill.
c Movements: the behavioral characteristics of the body parts required to com-
plete a particular action or skill.
Movements are the component parts of skill, and the term movement indicates
the use of a specific body part or a combination of limbs. We link together a range
of movements to complete a skill. Movements are therefore the behavior demon-
strated when performing a particular skill in a particular context. However, the
same skill can be completed or achieved via different combinations of movements.
For example, we throw a ball differently on a windy day compared to a still day
but the movement on both days is still considered throwing. This movement flex-
ibility will be explored further when we look at theories of control. Movement
is often described in functional terms, such as throwing or catching. This is very
different from describing the body movements that are produced to achieve a
functional outcome. Movements are also adjusted to the movement context; in
Figure 2.1, the kayaker makes adjustments in line with changes in environmental
conditions. As we consider the classification of movement, we will begin to see
the importance of looking in-depth at the nature of movement and movement
production.
The above terms are used to describe activities in contexts where humans
are moving. They are not intended to describe the quality of the skill, action or
movement produced. Across the literature and depending upon the discipline,
Classification of skill 13

Figure 2.1 When paddling a kayak, the performer has to make many adjustments due to
environmental demands

you will find differences in how the above terms are applied. Burton and Miller
(1998) comment on the importance of being consistent in the terms that we use
to describe movements but also state that terms such as movement skill and
motor skill are often used synonymously and that this can cause confusion.
As it is likely that differences in the terminology used by different disciplines
will continue to vary, they suggest that the way forward is to agree on consis-
tent definitions for key terms. In addition, they recommend that a taxonomy
of movement skills should be developed that takes into account the needs of
different disciplines.
Classification systems have been developed to further help describe and evalu-
ate skills, actions and movements. These tend to begin with the term skill to make
the first distinction and then use definitions of the actions and/or movements
to add further detail to the classifications. Classification systems that have been
developed tend to approach motor skill from two perspectives: a task perspective
or a performance proficiency perspective. Fleshman et al. (1984) state that clas-
sifications are the arrangement of objects into groups based on their properties.
The remainder of the section will outline the most popular methods of classifying
motor skill.

Task perspective Task perspective skill classifications tend to focus more on what is actually hap-
skill pening without in-depth analysis of the process. Four distinctions have been used
classifications to classify tasks from a task perspective:
1 the way the task is organized
2 the importance of the motor and cognitive elements
3 the level of muscular involvement
4 the level of environmental predictability.
14 Classification of skill

Some of these classifications are one-dimensional and just take into account one
of the above on a linear continuum; others are two-dimensional (Gentile 1987)
and take into account more than one of the above and consider how they interact.

Skills classified by task organization

Skills are often classified by task organization with discrete skill and continuous
skills at opposite ends of the continuum. Table 2.1 outlines such a classification,
giving examples from sport and physical activity.

Table 2.1 Discrete, serial and continuous skills

Discrete Serial Continuous

Kicking Pole vaulting Running

Throwing Long jump Swimming

Discrete skills are usually brief, with a well-defined beginning and end. Discrete
skills are often used in motor control experiments because the experimenter can
easily identify the start and the finish of the movement. In reaching to grasp an
object, for example, the movement starts when the hand begins to move and ends
when the object is grasped. Other examples of discrete skills include hitting, kick-
ing, throwing and catching.
Serial skills involve several discrete actions with the order of the action being
crucial to success. For example, in long jumping there is the run-up, the take-off,
the flight and the landing. These sub-elements have to be performed in a specific
order for the jump to be successful. Serial skills can be considered as a number of
discrete skills linked together. Serial skills are sometimes learnt most effectively
by dividing them into their component parts, such as when learning a gymnastic
routine. By their very nature, serial skills usually have a longer movement time
than discrete skills.
At the other end of the continuum are continuous skills that are often repetitive
with no recognizable beginning or end. Examples of these are running, cycling
and swimming, which of course do end at some point, but during the event the
performer is continually moving. Continuous skills are often repetitive, rhythmic
and involve a long time span. The duration of a continuous skill is usually deter-
mined by a barrier or finishing line.

Skill classified by the importance of the motor and cognitive elements

Skills are also classified on a continuum with the main determinant of success
being purely the movement at one end (motor skill) and quality of the decision
or the cognitive component at the other end (cognitive skill). As can be seen in
Table 2.2, some skills demand a combination of both. In fact, it could be argued
that some level of cognitive involvement is required to perform most skills.

Table 2.2 The continuum from motor skill to cognitive skill

Motor skill Cognitive skill

Motor skill maximum Both motor and cognitive skill Cognitive skill maximum
Weight lifting Rock climbing Sports coaching
Shot put Playing hockey Playing bridge
Classification of skill 15

Figure 2.2 A gymnastic routine is a perfect example of a serial task.

This is very much a continuum, and the focus towards the more motor or the
more cognitive element of a task or skill may well depend upon the level of expe-
rience or expertise of the performer. For example, when you are first learning to
bowl in cricket you will focus on the motor elements of the task. As you become
more skilled you will be able to focus more on tactics. It is also interesting to
note that when skills have a high cognitive component, such as driving a car, we
are, after extensive practice, eventually able to reduce this task to mainly a motor
activity. We can then introduce other cognitive tasks which we are able to perform
at the same time without having to pay much attention to the motor component
of the task. More recently, a new classification framework has been proposed that
is specifically designed to assist the development of visual and perceptual cogni-
tive skill. This will be considered in more detail in Chapter 3 (Hadlow et al. 2018).