Advanced Geography Notes - Grade 12

July 1, 2024

Contents

Unit 1: Major Geological Processes Associated with Plate Tectonics 2

Unit 2: Climate Change 7

Unit 3: Issues in Sustainable Development I: Management of Conflict

over Resources 11

Unit 4: Issues in Sustainable Development II: Population Policies,

Programs, and the Environment 13

Unit 5: Issues in Sustainable Development III: Challenges of Eco-

nomic Development 17

Unit 6: Issues in Sustainable Development IV: Solutions to Environ-

mental and Sustainability Problems 21

Unit 7: Contemporary Global Geographic Issues and Public Con-

cerns 23

Unit 8: Geographical Inquiry and Map Making 26

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Unit 1: Major Geological Processes Associated

with Plate Tectonics
1.1 Continental Drift Theory
• Continental Drift: The theory proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, sug-
gesting that Earth’s continents have moved over geologic time relative to
each other, and were once joined together as a single supercontinent.

• Pangaea: The supercontinent that existed around 350 million years ago.

• Laurasia: The northern part of Pangaea, which broke apart to form North
America, Europe, and Asia.

• Gondwanaland: The southern part of Pangaea, which broke apart to form

South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and India.

• Evidence for Continental Drift:

– Coastline Similarity: The coastlines of continents like Africa and

South America have a remarkable fit when placed together.
– Rock Type and Structural Similarities: Similar rock types and
ages are found on different continents, suggesting they were once con-
nected.
– Fossil Evidence: Fossils of the same species are found on different
continents, indicating that these landmasses were once joined. For ex-
ample, fossils of the Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile, are found in both
South America and Africa.

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– Paleoclimatic Evidence: Evidence of past climates, such as glacial

deposits found in tropical regions, suggests that continents were once
in different positions.

• Why Wegener’s Theory Was Initially Rejected:

– Wegener was not a geologist by profession, which led to skepticism from

established scientists.
– Many influential geologists were based in the Northern Hemisphere,
while much of the evidence came from the Southern Hemisphere.
– Wegener proposed that Pangaea did not break up until the Cenozoic
Era, which seemed too short a time for continents to have moved so far.
– A lack of a plausible mechanism to explain how continents could move.

1.2 Plate Tectonics Theory

• Plate Tectonics: The theory that Earth’s lithosphere (the rigid outer layer)
is broken into large plates that move over the asthenosphere (a softer layer
of the upper mantle).

• Asthenosphere: A partially molten layer of the upper mantle.

• Lithosphere: The rigid outer layer of Earth, composed of the crust and the
uppermost part of the mantle.

• Tectonic Plates: The large plates of the lithosphere.

• Plate Boundaries: Where plates interact, causing geological activity (earth-

quakes, volcanoes, mountain formation).

• Driving Force: Convection currents in the mantle.

• Types of Tectonic Plates: Continental (primarily granite), Oceanic (pri-

marily basalt).

1.3 Plate Movements and Plate Boundaries

1.3.1 Types of Plate Boundaries
• Convergent (Destructive) Boundaries: Plates move towards each other.

– Ocean-Continent Convergence: The denser oceanic plate subducts

(sinks) beneath the less dense continental plate. This process leads to:

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∗ Volcanic Arcs: A chain of volcanoes that form along the edge of

the continental plate.
∗ Mountain Ranges: Mountain ranges like the Andes Mountains
are formed due to the uplift caused by subduction.
∗ Deep-Ocean Trenches: Deep depressions in the ocean floor along
the subduction zone.
∗ Earthquakes: Earthquakes occur along the subduction zone.
– Ocean-Ocean Convergence: One denser oceanic plate subducts be-
neath the other, creating:
∗ Volcanic Island Arcs: Chains of volcanic islands formed parallel
to the subduction zone (e.g., the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana
Islands).
∗ Deep-Ocean Trenches: Deep trenches in the ocean floor.
∗ Earthquakes: Earthquakes occur along the subduction zone.
– Continent-Continent Convergence: Collision of two continental
plates leads to:
∗ Mountain Ranges: The formation of major mountain ranges like
the Himalayas.
∗ Earthquakes: Earthquakes occur along the collision zone.
• Divergent (Constructive) Boundaries: Plates move apart.
– Seafloor Spreading: New oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges.
Magma rises from the mantle and cools, creating new crust. This pro-
cess is responsible for the formation of new ocean basins.
– Rift Valleys: Continental crust splits apart, forming valleys.
∗ Examples: The East African Rift Valley
• Transform (Conservative) Boundaries: Plates slide past each other hor-
izontally.
– Transform Faults: Fractures in the crust where plates move horizon-
tally. This movement causes:
∗ Earthquakes: Earthquakes occur along transform faults.
∗ Examples: The San Andreas Fault in California

1.3.2 Triple Junctions

• Definition: Points where three plate boundaries meet. Triple junctions can
be complex and involve various combinations of convergent, divergent, and
transform boundaries.

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1.4 Major Geological Processes

1.4.1 Internal (Endogenic) Forces
• Endogenic Forces: Forces that originate within the Earth.

• Folding: The bending of rock layers due to compressional forces.

– Anticline: An upward fold that resembles an arch.

– Syncline: A downward fold that resembles a trough.
– Types of Folds: Asymmetrical folds, overfolds, overthrust folds.

• Faulting: The fracturing of rock layers due to tension or compression.

– Horst: An uplifted block of land between two faults.

– Graben (Rift Valley): A sunken block of land between two faults.
– Fault-Block Mountains: Mountains formed by the uplift of blocks
of land.

• Earthquakes: The sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust, causing

ground shaking.

– Causes: Plate movement and fault rupture.

– Richter Scale: A logarithmic scale used to measure the magnitude of
earthquakes.
– Seismic Waves: Waves of energy that travel through the Earth.
∗ Body Waves: P waves (compressional) and S waves (shear)
∗ Surface Waves: Love waves and Rayleigh waves
– Focus: The point within the Earth where an earthquake originates.
– Epicenter: The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
– Effects: Ground shaking, tsunamis, landslides, and damage to infras-
tructure.

• Volcanism: The process by which molten rock (magma) reaches the Earth’s
surface.

– Vents: Openings in the Earth’s surface where magma erupts.

– Fissures: Long, narrow cracks in the Earth’s surface where magma
erupts.

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– Volcanoes: Conical mountains formed by the accumulation of volcanic

material.
∗ Shield Volcanoes: Broad, gently sloping volcanoes formed by
fluid lava flows.
∗ Stratovolcanoes: Steep-sided volcanoes formed by alternating
layers of lava and ash.
∗ Cinder Cone Volcanoes: Conical hills formed by the accumula-
tion of cinders.
– Craters: Bowl-shaped depressions at the top of a volcano.
– Calderas: Large, basin-shaped depressions that form after a volcanic
eruption.
– Intrusive Igneous Rocks: Rocks that form when magma cools and
solidifies beneath the Earth’s surface.
∗ Batholiths: Large, dome-shaped intrusions of igneous rock.
∗ Sills: Near-horizontal intrusions of igneous rock between layers of
rock.
∗ Dikes: Near-vertical intrusions of igneous rock that cut through
existing rock layers.

1.4.2 External (Exogenic) Forces

• Exogenic Forces: Forces that originate outside the Earth, primarily from
the atmosphere and hydrosphere.

• Denudation: The wearing away and lowering of the Earth’s surface.

• Weathering: The breakdown of rocks and minerals.

– Physical Weathering: Breakdown of rocks without changes in their

chemical composition.
∗ Frost Action: Freezing and thawing of water in rock cracks.
∗ Thermal Expansion and Contraction: Changes in tempera-
ture causing rocks to expand and contract, leading to fracturing.
∗ Plant and Animal Action: Roots of plants and burrowing ani-
mals can break rocks.
– Chemical Weathering: Breakdown of rocks due to chemical reac-
tions.
∗ Rain Action: Rainwater dissolves minerals in rocks.

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∗ Plants and Animals: Organic acids from decaying plants and

animal waste can weather rocks.

• Erosion: The transport of weathered material by agents such as:

– Running Water: Forms features like V-shaped valleys, gorges, water-

falls, meanders, oxbow lakes, floodplains, and deltas.
– Wind: Creates features like sand dunes, loess deposits.
– Sea Waves: Shapes coastlines, creates beaches, spits, and lagoons.
– Glaciers: Carve valleys, create moraines, and deposit glacial till.

• Mass Wasting: The downslope movement of rock, soil, and regolith under
the influence of gravity.

– Factors: Gravity, water content, slope angle, and human activities.

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Unit 2: Climate Change

2.1 Basic Concepts of Climate Change
• Climate Change: A significant and long-term change in global or regional
climate patterns, primarily due to human-induced changes in the atmo-
sphere.

• Global Warming: A long-term increase in Earth’s average temperature,

primarily caused by greenhouse gas emissions.

• Greenhouse Gases: Gases in the atmosphere that trap heat, such as car-
bon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O).

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• Greenhouse Effect: The natural process where greenhouse gases trap heat
in the atmosphere.

• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): A leading

international scientific body that assesses climate change.

2.2 Trends in Global Climate Change

• Rising Temperatures: Global average temperatures have increased signif-
icantly over the past century.

• Sea Level Rise: Caused by the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, and the
thermal expansion of ocean water.

• Melting Ice: Glaciers and ice sheets are melting at an accelerating rate.

• Changes in Precipitation Patterns: Some areas are experiencing in-

creased rainfall, while others are experiencing more frequent and severe
droughts.

• Impacts on Ecosystems: Climate change is affecting plant and animal

species and their habitats.

2.3 Natural and Human-Induced Climate Change

2.3.1 Natural Causes of Climate Change
• Variations in Solar Output: The sun’s energy output varies slightly over
time.

• Milankovitch Cycles: Variations in Earth’s orbit and axial tilt that influ-
ence solar radiation.

• Volcanic Eruptions: Volcanoes can release ash and gases into the atmo-
sphere, which can reflect sunlight and cause cooling.

• Atmospheric Particles: Aerosols, both natural and human-induced, can

affect the climate.

2.3.2 Human-Induced Causes of Climate Change

• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: From burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and
industrial processes.

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• Land-Use Changes: Deforestation, agriculture, and urbanization can alter

the balance of greenhouse gases.

2.4 Consequences of Climate Change

• Impacts on Health: Increased spread of diseases, heat-related illnesses.

• Impacts on Agriculture: Reduced crop yields, changing growing seasons.

• Impacts on Ecosystems: Species loss, habitat degradation.

• Impacts on Water Resources: Droughts, floods, water scarcity.

• Impacts on Coastal Areas: Sea level rise, flooding.

• Impacts on Polar Regions: Melting ice, permafrost thaw.

2.5 Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies to Climate Change

2.5.1 Adaptation
• Definition: Adjusting to the impacts of climate change.

• Types:

– Reactive Adaptation: Responding to climate change impacts after

they have occurred.
– Anticipatory Adaptation: Planning for and preparing for antici-
pated climate change impacts.
– Private Adaptation: Actions taken by individuals or businesses to
adapt.
– Public Adaptation: Actions taken by governments to adapt.
– Planned Adaptation: Deliberate and coordinated efforts to adapt.
– Autonomous Adaptation: Unplanned changes that occur in response
to climate change.

2.5.2 Mitigation
• Definition: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

• Strategies:

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– Renewable Energy: Shifting to energy sources like solar, wind, and

hydro.
– Energy Efficiency: Using energy more efficiently in homes, busi-
nesses, and transportation.
– Carbon Pricing: Using carbon taxes, cap-and-trade systems, or emis-
sions trading schemes to make polluters pay for emissions.
– Forest Conservation: Protecting existing forests and reforestation.

2.6 International Conventions and Agreements on Climate

Change
• Major Agreements:

– The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC): An international treaty aimed at stabilizing greenhouse
gas concentrations in the atmosphere.
– The Kyoto Protocol: An international agreement that set binding
targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
– The Paris Agreement: An international agreement to combat cli-
mate change and adapt to its effects.

2.7 Pillars of Climate Resilient Green Economy of Ethiopia

• Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE): Ethiopia’s strategy to
achieve low-carbon, climate-resilient economic growth.

• Key Pillars:

– Agriculture: Promoting sustainable agricultural practices and en-

hancing food security.
– Forestry: Protecting and restoring forests.
– Renewable Energy: Expanding the use of renewable energy sources
(hydro, solar, wind, geothermal).
– Energy Efficiency: Improving energy efficiency in industries and
households.

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Unit 3: Issues in Sustainable Development I: Man-

agement of Conflict over Resources
3.1 The Concept of Sustainable Development
• Definition: Development that meets the needs of the present generation
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.

• Three Pillars: Economic development, social development, and environ-

mental sustainability.

• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A set of 17 global goals

adopted by the UN to achieve sustainable development by 2030.

3.2 Resource Use Policies and Related Conflicts

• Types of Resources:

– Renewable Resources: Resources that can be replenished naturally

(e.g., forests, solar energy, water).
– Non-renewable Resources: Resources that cannot be replenished at
a rate comparable to their consumption (e.g., fossil fuels, minerals).

• Drivers of Resource Conflicts:

– Competition over Scarce Resources: Increased demand for limited

resources can lead to conflict.

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– Poor Governance of Resources: Weak institutions and policies can

exacerbate conflicts.
– Transboundary Resource Dynamics: Conflicts arising from shared
resources between countries.

• The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework: A framework that helps un-

derstand how changes in resource availability affect livelihoods and can con-
tribute to conflict.

• Strategies for Reducing Resource Conflict:

– Livelihood Diversification: Expanding livelihood options.

– Improving Resource Efficiency: Using resources more productively.
– Livelihood Adaptation: Adapting livelihoods to changes in resource
availability.
– Livelihood Protection: Preventing the loss of livelihood assets.
– Emergency Livelihood Support: Providing assistance during times
of crisis.

3.3 Governance of Natural Resources

• Definition: The rules, institutions, and processes that govern how natural
resources are managed, owned, and used.

• Principles of Good Natural Resource Governance:

– Clarifying Rights and Responsibilities: Clear and equitable re-

source rights and responsibilities.
– Equitable Access: Fair and just access to resources.
– Environmental and Social Impact Assessments: Evaluating the
potential environmental and social impacts of projects.
– Public Participation: Involving communities in decision-making.
– Adaptive Management: Adjusting management practices based on
new information and changing conditions.

3.4 Indigenous Conflict Resolution Practices

• Indigenous Knowledge: Traditional knowledge systems and practices.

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• Conflict Resolution Mechanisms: Traditional methods used to resolve

disputes, such as the Gadaa system, the Shimagle, the T’eer, and the Mada’a.
• Importance: Indigenous conflict resolution can be valuable in addressing
conflicts over resources and promoting social harmony.

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Unit 4: Issues in Sustainable Development II: Pop-

ulation Policies, Programs, and the Environment
4.1 Theories on Population Growth and Development
4.1.1 Conservative Theories
• Malthusian Theory: Argues that population growth outpaces food pro-
duction, leading to poverty and misery.
• Neo-Malthusianism: Extends Malthus’ ideas, emphasizing the need for
population control to address development challenges.

4.1.2 Radical Theories

• Ester Boserup’s Hypothesis: Argues that population growth can stimu-
late agricultural innovation and development.
• Julian Simon’s ”Ultimate Resource” Theory: Believes that popula-
tion growth is beneficial, as it increases the pool of human ingenuity and
innovation.
• Marxian Perspective: Attributes poverty to unequal distribution of re-
sources and exploitation under capitalism.

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4.2 Population Policies

• Population Policy: Government measures aimed at influencing population
growth, distribution, and structure.

4.2.1 Pro-natalist Policies

• Definition: Policies aimed at increasing birth rates.

4.2.2 Anti-natalist Policies

• Definition: Policies aimed at reducing birth rates.

4.3 Measures Taken to Curb Growth of Population

• One-Child Policy: A policy implemented in China to limit families to one
child.

• Family Planning: Providing access to contraception and other family plan-

ning services.

• Other Measures: Economic incentives, education, and social programs.

4.4 Relationship between Population and Socio-economic

Development
• Development: A complex process that involves improving living standards,
quality of life, and human well-being.

• Indicators of Development:

– Economic Indicators: GDP per capita, income growth, and economic

diversification.
– Social Indicators: Literacy rates, school enrollment, life expectancy,
access to healthcare, and income inequality.
– Environmental Indicators: Air and water quality, biodiversity, and
land degradation.

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4.4.1 Factors of Economic Development

• Economic Factors:

– Natural Resources: The availability and abundance of natural re-

sources.
– Capital Investment: The amount of investment in infrastructure,
machinery, and technology.
– Technology: The level of technological advancement.

• Non-economic Factors:

– Labor Force: The size, skills, and health of the workforce.

– Social Values: The values and attitudes of a society.
– Political Stability: A stable political environment is conducive to
economic growth.
– Education: Higher levels of education and training can increase pro-
ductivity.
– Health: Improved health can boost productivity.

4.4.2 Social Implications of Population Growth

• Poverty and Hunger: Rapid population growth can exacerbate poverty
and hunger.

• Pressure on Resources: Population growth can lead to depletion of re-

sources, environmental degradation, and competition for resources.

• Urbanization: Population growth can contribute to urbanization, creating

challenges for cities.

4.5 Relationship between Population and Environmental Health

• Environmental Health: The study of how environmental factors affect
human health and well-being.

4.5.1 Key Environmental Health Principles

• Ecosystem Resilience: Protecting and restoring ecosystems to ensure
long-term sustainability.

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• Environmental Justice: Ensuring that all people have access to a healthy

environment, regardless of their background.

• Pollution Prevention: Reducing pollution from various sources.

• Sustainable Resource Management: Using natural resources responsi-

bly.

4.5.2 Global Environmental Health Issues

• Air Pollution: Can cause respiratory problems, heart disease, and cancer.

• Water Pollution: Contamination of water sources can cause diseases.

• Climate Change: Can lead to health problems related to extreme heat,

drought, flooding, and disease spread.

• Emerging Infectious Diseases: The emergence of new diseases can pose

significant health risks.

4.5.3 Intervention Models

• Clinical Intervention Model: Focuses on treating existing diseases.

• Public Health Intervention Model: Aims to prevent disease by address-

ing environmental factors.

• Environmental Stewardship Model: Emphasis on protecting the envi-

ronment to promote health.

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Unit 5: Issues in Sustainable Development III:

Challenges of Economic Development
5.1 Multiple Faces of Poverty and Implications for Develop-
ment
• Poverty: A state of deprivation of basic needs, including food, shelter,
healthcare, and education.

• Types of Poverty:

– Absolute Poverty: Lack of basic necessities, defined by a poverty

line.
– Relative Poverty: Deprivation compared to others in a society.

5.1.1 Causes of Poverty

• Structural Causes: Factors embedded in economic systems and institu-
tions that contribute to poverty.

– Discrimination: Racial, gender, or other forms of discrimination that

limit opportunities.
– Inequality: Unequal distribution of wealth and resources.
– Lack of Investment: Insufficient investment in education, healthcare,
and infrastructure.

• Behavioral or Cultural Causes: Attitudes and behaviors that may con-

tribute to poverty.

5.1.2 Relationship between Conflict and Poverty

• Conflict Causes Poverty: Conflicts can devastate economies, disrupt
livelihoods, and displace populations.

• Poverty Causes Conflict: Poverty can create tensions over scarce re-
sources, leading to conflict.

• Resource Wealth Causes Conflict: Competition over valuable natural

resources can lead to conflict.

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5.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Globalization

• Globalization: The increasing interconnectedness of countries and peoples
around the world, driven by trade, communication, and technology.

5.2.1 Advantages of Globalization

• Increased Trade: Facilitates trade between countries.

• Increased Capital Flows: Allows for investment across borders.

• Technological Diffusion: Spreads new technologies and innovations.

• Economic Growth: Can lead to economic growth in developing countries.

• Cultural Exchange: Promotes the exchange of ideas and cultures.

5.2.2 Disadvantages of Globalization

• Environmental Degradation: Can lead to increased pollution and re-
source depletion.

• Exploitation of Labor: Can lead to the exploitation of workers in devel-

oping countries.

• Income Inequality: Can exacerbate income inequality between countries

and within countries.

• Cultural Homogenization: Can lead to the loss of cultural diversity.

• Loss of National Sovereignty: Can reduce the power of national govern-

ments.

5.3 The Growing Imbalance between Regions and Countries

• Economic Inequality: The uneven distribution of wealth and income.

• The North-South Divide: A persistent gap between developed and de-

veloping countries.

• Trade Imbalance: When a country imports more goods and services than
it exports.

• Causes of Trade Imbalance:

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– Differences in Productivity and Technology: Developing coun-

tries may have lower productivity and less access to advanced technolo-
gies.
– Unequal Terms of Trade: Developing countries may receive lower
prices for their exports.
– Protectionism in Developed Countries: Developed countries may
impose barriers to imports from developing countries.
– Offshoring and Outsourcing: Companies in developed countries
may move production to developing countries to take advantage of lower
labor costs.

5.4 Corruption
• Definition: Abuse of public power for private gain.

5.4.1 Types of Corruption

• Bribery: Offering or accepting something of value in exchange for a favor.

• Theft of Public Assets: Misusing or stealing public funds or resources.

• Patronage: Favoritism and nepotism in government appointments and con-

tracts.

5.4.2 Consequences of Corruption

• Economic Damage: Reduces investment, distorts markets, and under-
mines economic growth.

• Social Inequality: Exacerbates existing inequalities.

• Political Instability: Can undermine trust in government and lead to

instability.

5.4.3 Measures to Combat Corruption

• Transparency and Accountability: Open and transparent government
operations.

• Strengthening Institutions: Improving the rule of law and law enforce-

ment.

• Public Awareness: Educating the public about the dangers of corruption.

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• International Cooperation: Working with other countries to combat cor-

ruption.

5.5 Global Health Crises

• Major Global Health Crises: HIV/AIDS, Ebola, COVID-19, malaria,
and other infectious diseases.

5.5.1 Historical Context of Global Health Problems

• Pandemics: Outbreaks of infectious diseases that spread globally.

5.5.2 Impact of Global Health Crises

• Economic Impact: Can disrupt economies, cause job losses, and reduce
productivity.

• Social Impact: Can lead to social unrest and increased inequality.

• Political Impact: Can strain healthcare systems and increase pressure on

governments.

5.5.3 Addressing Global Health Challenges

• Investment in Healthcare: Increased funding for healthcare systems.

• Public Health Measures: Preventive measures such as vaccinations and

sanitation.

• Research and Development: Investing in research to develop new treat-

ments and vaccines.

• International Cooperation: Collaborative efforts to address global health

crises.

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Unit 6: Issues in Sustainable Development IV: So-

lutions to Environmental and Sustainability Prob-
lems
6.1 Environmental Problems
• Climate Change: A significant and long-term change in global or regional
climate patterns.
• Ozone Depletion: The thinning of the ozone layer in the stratosphere.
• Biodiversity Loss: A decrease in the variety of life on Earth.
• Air Pollution: The contamination of the atmosphere with harmful sub-
stances.
• Water Pollution: The contamination of water sources with pollutants.
• Land Degradation: The deterioration of land due to human activities.
• Soil Contamination: The presence of harmful substances in soil.

6.2 The Challenge of Sustainability

• Sustainability: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
• Key Challenges:
– Population Growth: Can put pressure on resources and the environ-
ment.
– Urbanization: Rapid urbanization can strain infrastructure and lead
to environmental problems.
– Energy Consumption: High energy demand, often met through fossil
fuels, contributes to climate change.
– Water Scarcity: Growing water shortages due to increased demand
and climate change.
– Waste Management: The growing challenge of managing waste sus-
tainably.

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6.3 Environmental Education

• Definition: Learning about the environment, its importance, and how to
protect it.

• Types:

– Formal Environmental Education: Takes place in schools and uni-

versities.
– Informal Environmental Education: Occurs outside of formal set-
tings (e.g., zoos, museums, nature centers).
– Tacit Environmental Knowledge: Knowledge passed down through
generations through tradition, observation, and experience.

• Importance: Environmental education is crucial for promoting environ-

mental awareness, responsible behavior, and sustainable development.

6.4 Environmental Movements

• Definition: Groups and organizations that advocate for environmental pro-
tection.

• Types:

– Free Market Environmentalism: Advocates for using market forces

and property rights to protect the environment.
– Preservation: Focuses on protecting nature in its pristine state.
– Conservation: Emphasizes the sustainable use and management of
natural resources.
– Popular Environmentalism: Emphasizes consumer choices and lifestyle
changes to protect the environment.
– Dark Greens: Advocate for radical political and economic changes to
address environmental problems.
– Light Greens: Focus on individual actions and lifestyle choices to
protect the environment.
– Bright Greens: Advocate for technological solutions and innovation
to address environmental challenges.

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6.5 Environmentally Friendly Indigenous Practices

• Indigenous Knowledge: Traditional knowledge systems and practices that
are passed down through generations.

• Importance: Indigenous knowledge often contains valuable insights into

sustainable resource management and environmental protection.

6.5.1 Examples in Ethiopia

• Terracing (Konso): A traditional agricultural practice that helps prevent
soil erosion.

• Songo Sacred Trees (Gedeo): Protected trees that hold cultural and
spiritual significance.

• Shifting Cultivation (Gumuz): A traditional agricultural method that

helps maintain soil fertility.

• Folk Medicinal Practices: Traditional knowledge about healing plants

and natural remedies.

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Unit 7: Contemporary Global Geographic Issues

and Public Concerns
7.1 Climate Change
• Global Issue: Climate change is a pressing global concern due to its widespread
impacts.

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• Impacts: See Unit 2.

• International Agreements: UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement.

7.2 Desertification
• Definition: The degradation of land in arid, semiarid, and dry sub-humid
areas, leading to a decrease in biological productivity.

• Causes:

– Overgrazing: Exceeding the carrying capacity of grasslands.

– Deforestation: Clearing forests, which can reduce soil stability and
increase erosion.
– Climate Change: Droughts and other climate extremes can exacer-
bate desertification.
– Unsustainable Agricultural Practices: Intensification and inap-
propriate farming practices.

7.2.1 Consequences of Desertification

• Loss of Biodiversity: A decrease in the variety of plant and animal life.

• Loss of Soil Fertility: Soil erosion and nutrient depletion.

• Food Shortages: Reduced agricultural productivity.

• Migration: Forced displacement of people from affected areas.

• Conflict: Can lead to conflicts over scarce resources.

7.2.2 Addressing Desertification

• Sustainable Land Management: Practices that conserve soil and prevent
erosion.

• Reforestation: Planting trees to restore degraded land.

• Water Management: Improving water conservation and irrigation sys-

tems.

• Community Involvement: Engaging local communities in conservation

efforts.

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7.3 Drought
• Definition: A prolonged period of abnormally low precipitation.

• Types:

– Meteorological Drought: A shortage of rainfall.

– Hydrological Drought: A shortage of water in rivers, lakes, and
groundwater.
– Agricultural Drought: A shortage of water for agriculture.

• Causes:

– Natural Factors: El Niño/La Niña, changes in atmospheric circula-

tion patterns.
– Human Factors: Deforestation, unsustainable land use, and climate
change.

7.3.1 Impacts of Drought

• Reduced Crop Yields: A decrease in agricultural production.

• Water Shortages: A lack of access to drinking water and water for other
purposes.

• Livestock Losses: Animals may die from lack of water and food.

• Migration: People may migrate to areas with more water.

• Famine: Severe food shortages can lead to famine.

7.3.2 Addressing Drought

• Water Conservation: Improving water management and reducing water
waste.

• Drought-Resistant Crops: Developing crops that can tolerate dry condi-

tions.

• Irrigation: Expanding irrigation systems.

• Early Warning Systems: Monitoring drought conditions and issuing warn-

ings.

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7.4 Famine
• Definition: A severe shortage of food, resulting in widespread starvation
and death.

7.4.1 Causes of Famine

• Food Insecurity: Lack of access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food.

• Drought: A major cause of famine.

• Conflict: Can disrupt food production and distribution.

• Poverty: Poverty makes people vulnerable to famine.

7.4.2 Addressing Famine

• Food Aid: Providing emergency food assistance.

• Long-Term Development: Addressing the root causes of poverty, hunger,

and food insecurity.

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Unit 8: Geographical Inquiry and Map Making

8.1 Fundamentals of Research in Geography
• Research: A systematic investigation to discover and understand informa-
tion.

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8.1.1 Purposes of Research

• Exploration: Investigating a topic or problem to gather preliminary infor-
mation.

• Description: Providing a detailed account of a phenomenon.

• Explanation: Seeking to understand the causes of a phenomenon.

• Prediction: Forecasting future trends.

8.1.2 Features of Geographic Research

• Spatial Focus: Geography emphasizes the spatial distribution and patterns
of phenomena.

• Interdisciplinary Nature: Geography draws from various fields, such as

social sciences, physical sciences, and humanities.

8.1.3 Research Approaches

• Quantitative Research: Uses numerical data and statistical methods.

• Qualitative Research: Uses descriptive data, interviews, and observations.

• Mixed Methods Research: Combines both quantitative and qualitative

approaches.

8.1.4 Research Methodology and Method

• Methodology: The overall plan or strategy for conducting research.

• Method: Specific techniques used to collect and analyze data.

8.1.5 Elements of a Research Project

• Research Problem: The question or issue that the research aims to ad-
dress.

• Objectives: The specific goals of the research.

• Research Questions: Specific questions that guide the investigation.

• Literature Review: A summary of existing research on the topic.

• Research Design: The plan for collecting and analyzing data.

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• Data Collection: Gathering information using methods such as surveys,

interviews, experiments, or observations.

• Data Analysis: Interpreting and drawing conclusions from the data.

• Results: Presenting the findings of the research.

• Discussion: Interpreting the results and explaining their significance.

• Conclusions: Summarizing the main findings.

• Recommendations: Suggestions for further research or action.

8.2 GIS Data and Map Making Using GIS

• GIS (Geographic Information System): A system for capturing, stor-
ing, analyzing, and displaying geographic information.

8.2.1 GIS Data

• Spatial Data: Data that has a geographic location.

• Types of Spatial Data: Point, line, area (polygon), and volume (surface).

• Data Generalization: Simplifying and summarizing spatial data for map

making.

– Classification: Grouping data into categories based on attributes.

– Simplification: Reducing the complexity of data.
– Exaggeration: Enhancing the visual representation of data.
– Symbolization: Using symbols to represent data.

• Data Representation: Methods for displaying spatial data on maps.

– Dot Maps: Use dots to represent the frequency of a phenomenon.

– Choropleth Maps: Use different shades or colors to represent data
values for geographic areas.
– Isarithm Maps: Use lines to connect points with equal values.

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8.2.2 GIS Data Analysis

• Querying: Selecting data based on specific criteria.

– Attribute Query: Selects data based on attributes.

– Spatial Query: Selects data based on location.

• Proximity Analysis: Analyzing the spatial relationships between features.

– Buffering: Creating zones around features.

– Distance Measurement: Calculating distances between features.

• Overlay Analysis: Combining multiple layers of spatial data.

• Network Analysis: Analyzing spatial networks, such as transportation

systems.

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