ETHICS MIDTERM

Lesson 1: CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

CULTURE AND MORAL BEHAVIOR

Principle: “Culture Influences Moral Behavior”

Individual behavior is connected to the person’s situation
(circumstances) that contributes to his action.

Culture frames one’s understanding of good and bad. KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEV’T THEORY
(Cultural orientation)
Issues on women, marriage, and religion manifest a great
impact of culture.

Ex. WIFE SHARING CULTURE IN HIMALAYAN INDIA,

CHILD MARRIAGE IN AFGHANISTAN
Culture, generally, shapes the moral framework/
behavior of persons and even of groups.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
- Is a doctrine that asserts validity of culture in the
process of thinking.

✓Simply, it is a doctrine which asserts that culture

dictates ones behavior and even the morality of one’s 1. PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
act. ✓The norms of morality are understood through physical
CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND ETHICS pain and pleasure orientation.

✓It is culture specific such that truth is measured STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
dependent upon cultural logic and consistency.

“When in Rome, do as the Rome do.”

ETHICAL THINKING IN CULTURAL RELATIVISM

DOING OF GOOD IS GREATLY DEPENDENT ON

ONE’S CULTURE. .
CONCRETE MANIFESTATION OF CULTURAL
RELATIVISM:

✓What can be true to one culture may not necessarily be 2. CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
true to another.
✓Concerns are the values of family, of the nation, of the
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY BY LAWRENCE group, or in short, the society where one belongs.
KOHLBERG
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
WHAT IS MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY ALL
ABOUT?

✓It emphasizes the gradual progress experienced by

the individual who in turn can only realize his or her own
status of personal development after passing through a
lower level.

3. POST CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

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✓An individual shows an independent attitude in his or 2. When moral claims could not be supported by
her regard to values used to be prescribed by his or her reasonable arguments, then such claims would in
society. no way resolve a moral issue.
3. The neutral position (relativism) carried out by
feelings implies a double standard.
4. Emotions unaided by reason do away with critical
analysis for objectivity, disconnecting ethics.
ST. AUGUSTINE SAYS:

Animal passion is different from human rationality.

✓Animals – instinctive tendencies

✓Humans – control instinct with reason.

Lesson 3: FEELINGS AND MORAL DECISION-
Feelings maybe helpful but it should be guided by
MAKING reason.
BASE QUESTION: Why is reason not enough in carrying THE 7-STEP MORAL REASONING MODEL A THEORY
out moral decisions? BY MICHAEL DAVIS LESSON 4
EMOTIONS… 1. STATE THE PROBLEM
✓Are constitutive of being human on personal and The ACKNOWLEDGEMENT THAT THERE IS AN
collective levels. EXISTING PROBLEM is crucial prior to its full
determination . . . BY STATING THAT SOME THINGS
✓Are momentary feelings; unsuitable to moral decision
HAVE TO BE FIXED, one is able to pinpoint to where the
making
problem originates.
✓Are unwilled and subjective; are fleeting feelings
2. ASCERTAIN THE FACTS
hence, there can hardly be accountability.
Not all problems identified would be considered as
EMOTIONS AND MORALITY
legitimate problems. . . DIFFICULTIES RESULT FROM
What are EMOTIONS? MISCOMMUNICATION . . .

✓Conscious mental reaction subjectively experienced ASCERTAINING THE FACTS CLEAR OUT ALL THE
as strong feeling usually directed toward a specific object DOUBTS PRESENT.
and typically accompanied by physiological and 3. IDENTIFY RELEVANT FACTS
behavioral changes in the body.
… one has to CIRCUMNAVIGATE THE VARIABLES
PHILOSOPHERS convinced that EMOTIONS play INVOLVED IN THE ISSUE.
crucial role in moral decision-making.
Ex: As a teacher, you have caught someone cheating.
BLAISE PASCAL: “The HEART knows what the MIND Upon doing the first two in the process, now you can
does not.” check the name of the student, the degree/extent of his
BLAISE PASCAL: action, the specific rules that his action is based on in the
handbook, all while also asking him about his side of the
✓The mind is not the sole arbiter of what is right and story.
wrong.
4. DEVELOP A LIST OF OPTIONS
✓Emotions operate with precision and Consistency of its
… DEVELOPING A LIST OF OPTIONS should LEAD TO
own.
A FOCUSED CHOICE… choosing effectively solves
Two schools of thought on emotions: identified problem, therefore, IT MUST ADDRESS THE
PROBLEM BOTH POSSIBLY AND PLAUSIBLY.
✓Emotion is a hindrance and a help.
5. TEST OPTIONS
(Why they can be obstacles in making the right decision?)
(How can they help in making the right decision?) Returning to the old problem earlier, THERE ARE
✓Emotions should be guided by reason. MYRIAD OF OPTIONS ONE CAN LOOK INTO BEFORE
JUDGMENT. The following can be used as a test:
EMOTIONS AND REASON PRINCIPLES
5.1. Virtue Test: If I were to ignore this, how does this
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1. Emotions should be guided by reason.

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5.2. Harm Test: What will be the effect of the possibility
of non-disclosure?

5.3. Reversibility Test: Would I be also affected by it if I

were in his/her position?

5.4. Professional Test: How does my discipline or field

see this action?

5.5. Organization Test: How does the organization or my

institution observe the following problem?

5.6. Colleague Test: How does my colleague see the

same issue?
VICES
5.7. Publicity Test: How should this be treated publicly?
5.8. Defensibility Test: How could this issue be ✓Opposite of virtues
defended, and where?
✓The inconsistency towards values
6. TENTATIVE CHOICE
✓The repetition of doing bad.
The first five steps lead you to make for yourself an
INFORMED CHOICE THAT CAN STILL BE PHILOSOPHY
EVALUATED.
REMEMBER…
6. MAKE A FINAL DECISION
•MATURITY, DECISIVENESS, and UPRIGHTNESS are
The final choice is now set for a new ethical decision. . . certain qualities of an individual who has grown through
HAPPENS UPON FURTHER EVALUATION OF THE life.
STEPS. . . This also LEADS TO ITS SIGNIFICANCE TO
VIRTUE ETHICS
A FURTHER WHOLE: SOCIETY and other
INSTITUTIONS like the CHURCH. VIRTUE

THE MORAL AGENT AND VIRTUE ETHICS • (Etymologically) manliness, i.e. strength, courage
• Disposition, ability, or habit inclining man to think
WHAT IS A MORAL AGENT?
and act correctly to follow what is right and avoid
✓Doer/ Performer/Actor of moral value. what is evil.
• A highly regarded personality trait or aspect of
✓Has the full accountability for his action. One cannot character.
point at other reasons. • Deeply held value by a person that intrinsically
A MORAL AGENT… leads him or her to behave in a certain way.
• Good universal values, all of us should have
✓Is capable of thinking what is good (or bad). • It affect how we absorbed the world around us
✓Possesses the virtues which do not develop overnight. and act in the world.
• Virtuous people are not perfect, but it does not
PRINCIPLES ON MORAL AGENCY
affect the purity or inspirational component of the
✓doing what is morally good (bad) is not sufficient to virtue itself.
make the moral agent good (bad). • It is a good quality of the mind by which one lives
rightly, which no one uses badly and which God
✓intention or motivation before the act has been done
works in us but without us (St. Augustine)
should be investigated.
• It is a good habit perfecting man in any of his
•THE AGENT POSSESSES THE VIRTUES. rational potencies and inclining him to the right
and perfect use of his potencies (St. Thomas)
Virtues are formed character of a person who through
time has consistently exercised these values. VIRTUE ETHICS

• Considers excellence or goodness in terms of

performance.
• Any activity that is good reflects the doing of
things in an excellent way.
• Actualization or perfection of human excellence
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• Virtues that give rise to a good life

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 • A good life and the manner by which it is lived, Giving what is due to others.
and exemplification of the virtues
1. Legal
APPROACHES TO VIRTUE ETHICS
✓Binding all men to do what is for the common good in
A. EUDAIMONISM (synonymous with virtue ethics) accordance with the law.
• The ideal goal of human existence is individual
2. Distributive (community to individuals)
eudaimonia.
Happiness; wellbeing; good life ✓Directs the state to share out to the people benefits and
offices according to the merits and capabilities.
• This goodness is attainable by acting out those
virtues, called phronesis (prudence or practical 3. Commutative justice (between individuals)
wisdom) ✓Duty of one individual to give what is due to another.
• phronesis is a tool to achieve happiness
4. Social Justice
B. ETHICS OF CARE
✓Direct individuals to give society its due.
• 20TH century
• Outgrowth of feminist theory of Annette Baier ✓It imposes the obligation to assist those in need so that
• Gender role influences a person’s action and they too can live their life worthy of dignity as persons.
thinking
5. International justice
• Taking care of others, patient and nurturing, willing to
sacrifice one’s own happiness for the sake of other’s ✓Common welfare of all nations. Main duties are
happiness preservation of world peace, unity, and brotherhood.

C. AGENT-BASED THEORY (Michael Slote)

• Uses the largest, most normal and most lauded
virtues across time and culture (ex. Kindness
and mercy)
• Moves the burden of ethics to the inner life of the VIRTUE-BASED MORALITY
agent who performs those actions.
• The extent of excellence performed by an
THE FOUR CARDINAL VIRTUES individual and as to where that individual is
expected to function well.
1. PRUDENCE
• The two great thinkers espoused a virtue-based
2. JUSTICE
moral system: Aristotle & St. Thomas Aquinas.
3. FORTITUDE
4. TEMPERANCE ARISTOTELIAN VIRTUE ETHICS
PRUDENCE - Regulates the intellect to think of the right • Teleological and eudaiministic
thing and to avoid evil. • “Telos” is a Latin term for “end” which mean a
product which the agent seeks to make or an action
JUSTICE - Regulates the will of giving what is due to
that is to be done or accomplished.
others.
• Human beings have the natural inclination to pursue
FORTITUDE - Regulates weakness of character an end which is happiness.
• In Aristotle’s society, students are trained to acquire
TEMPERANCE - Voluntary self-restraint
moral knowledge and skills.
CHARITY • Teachers and social political institutions, ensure the
cultivation of moral disposition in their young citizens.
✓The mover, the mother and root of all virtues and the
• Two realms of social affair:
source of good will, kindness, mercy, and forgiveness.
➢ Intellectual reals (education of young
✓Supernatural virtue of loving God above all things and
citizens)
loving one’s neighbor because of God. ➢ Socio-political realm (provides the
✓Gives unity and harmony to individual moral life and to education)
the whole humanity. • Reassure the honing of the two-fold virtues to human
excellence (intellectual virtue, courage)
✓Helping the poor, the unfortunate, the underprivileged • Moral education or ethical instruction is the key in
fostering good habits (virtues) and discouraging bad
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JUSTICE
habits (vices)
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• Doctrine of the mean NATURAL LAW

HAPPINESS AS A VIRTUE ✓ Aspect of eternal law knowable to man and

applicable to human lives.
▪ Anything good makes a human happy Aristotle
✓ “an intellect-bit size of reality”
believes in happiness that is pursued with pleasure.
✓ Man has participation and contribution as a rational
▪ Pleasure or happiness is the end goal of human act.
being
▪ Lasting enjoyment experienced by higher beings
✓ E.g. procreation of man and woman, sustaining and
human beings enjoy higher pleasures guided by
defending life, protection of the environment, etc.
higher faculty (rationality)
▪ Lower form of animals enjoy lower pleasures directed HUMAN LAW
by lower faculties (appetites)
✓ An application of the general principles of natural law
▪ Human beings who heed to lower appetitive
to particular situations, by the human minds.
tendencies experience the same lower pleasures as
✓ Morally-based earthly laws by which human societies
that of animals.
function.
▪ Aristotle asserts that there can hardly be happiness
✓ E..g. constitutional law, Republic acts, Decrees,
without virtue.
Ordinances, Ecclesiastical law, etc.
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS ON NATURAL LAW
DIVINE LAW
▪ Doctor of the Roman Catholic church, theologian,
✓ An aspect of the eternal law made known to human
philosopher
minds by God through historical revelations.
▪ Regarded as a pillar in theological approach called
✓ Laid out in Old and New testaments
Thomism as well as pillar of philosophical movement
✓ E.g. the 10 Commandments
known as Scholasticism
▪ Puts forward that there is within us a conscience DIVISION OF LAW
directing our moral thinking.
The OLD LAW
▪ This sense of right and wrong must be informed,
guided, and grounded on morality ✓An aspect of the Divine law made known by God thru
▪ We are called to heed the voice of conscience and pre-Christian revelation to the Jewish people.
maintain a life of virtue
▪ For Thomas Aquinas, Natural law is the basis of
ethics and the ultimate ground directing our sense of The NEW LAW
what is right and wrong.
▪ All beings including man, came from God (first ✓An aspect of the Divine law made known by Christ to
efficient cause), who is essentially good the church.
▪ All beings will return to Him (final cause) THE NATURAL AND ITS TENETS (THOMISTIC
▪ God’s goodness is perfect, man’s is imperfect. THOUGHT)
▪ God directs man to arrive at his perfection and reach
their proper end which is returning to God. ✓ Natural means any innate human inclinations
(physical, moral) pertaining to one’s life.
THE ESSENCE AND VARIETIES OF LAW ✓ Physically, we are naturally inclined to promote life
▪ Law makes man concern about common good and continue living despite its odds.
(good of the community or whole people) ✓ We do not simply settle on securing our earthly life
▪ Law is an ordinance of reason, made and but we deepen our relationship with God.
promulgated by man for the common good. ✓ St. Thomas emphasizes that it is human nature to
desire his/her ultimate end in God.
DIVISIONS OF LAW ✓ This natural tendency of man seeking fulfilment in
ETERNAL LAW God finds its fulfilment through the supernatural agent
who is God Himself.
✓ A norm whereby God governs the universe and most ✓ Human will, as a nature (Voluntas ut natura)
of which are unknowable to man. ✓ Our acts of will or volition arise from our natural
✓ What God wills for creation desire for the ultimate end.
✓ Keeps the universe (Kosmos) in proper working order ✓ Natural law is instilled in us hence, it can be known
✓ It always exist, and always will within the mind of God naturally.
(Logos) ✓ Synderesis- the habit of doing good and avoiding
✓ All creatures are part and participate in this law evil.
✓ E.g. sun, moon, daytime, night time, high tide, ebb
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tide, time, etc.

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 HAPPINESS AS CONSTITUTIVE OF MORAL AND • Jesus says that the road to heaven is thorny; no beds
CARDINAL VIRTUES of roses towards the glorious future, for it is wrapped
up with sorrow, pain, and all sorts of tribulations.
• Happiness (Felicitas) or Beatitudo or peace (pax) is
• “if you follow me, you must deny yourself, take up
the ultimate end or good pursued by human beings.
your cross and begin to follow in my steps.”
• Total or ultimate happiness is in afterlife. This is not
the same with Aristotle’s “happiness” achievable on LESSON 5: MORAL COURAGE
earth.
WHAT IS MORAL COURAGE?
• The ultimate happiness or Beautitudo Perfecta can
never be perfectly actualized by human beings, yet • The power to act upon a moral situation on the basis
achieved by the grace of God. of the agent’s moral decision.
• The human activity is instrumental to the divine
Doing what is right when confronted with a problem.
activity.
• Happiness is not only achieved through natural MORAL COURAGE: “THE WHAT IS”
virtues acquired by humans.
✓OPPOSED
• Otherwise, humans would end up in the illusion of
imperfect happiness. ✓REJECTED
• Ultimate happiness requires the virtue of FAITH,
HOPE, and LOVE. ✓THREATENED
• Thru this union with God, perfect happiness could be ✓Taking a moral stand despite the risk.
attained.
MORAL COURAGE: “WHAT IS NOT”
ETHICAL TEACHINGS OF ST. AUGUSTINE
X Inconsistency towards moral conviction
• God is the focal point of St. Augustine’s moral
imperative X TO IMPRESS
• God is the starting and terminal point of existence. X FAILURE to respond to situations significantly needing
• God created everything out of love. his response.
• Love is the central basis of his ethics.
• God favored man among His creations, because of WILL AS IMPORTANT AS REASON
the freewill. • INTELLECT or REASON is the principle of human
• Man’s freewill is the primordial basis of the existence action.
of evil. • We act with an idea in mind of what we are going to
• Man authors evil, and not God. do
• Evil is the absence of good.
• Despite the capacity to do evil, man is still capable of
attaining perfection by keeping himself good thru
prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance, charity, and
WILL
love.
• Intrinsic principle moving the agent towards an end.
ETHICAL TEACHINGS OF JESUS CHRIST
• Will being a prerequisite of an action to be considered
• More preference to the poor and the oppressed human
• Ethics of love • Every agent acts with an end in the mind.
• Demands honesty and authenticity • This end moves a person to act.
• Teaches faith in the Father
WILL+ INTELLECT= HUMAN ACT
• Espouses peace and reconciliation
• Demands sacrifice and peace Hence, moral courage is the interplay between reason
• the moral man is he who loves his/her neighbour and and will.
therefore loves God.
Otherwise, it is ACT OF MAN - St. Thomas Aquinas
• Doesn’t like people who wants to be moral to be
recognized in public. WILL AS IMPORTANT AS REASON
• A believer should not worry for tomorrow, thus should
develop a complete trust to the Father.
• He who has enemies is not worthy to be in good
terms with God
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PLATO - The nature of a person is already given and out
of this, the person can actualize his potentials.
ARISTOTLE - A person should acquire the skills to
develop the virtues for personal growth.

REMEMBER: Whether such virtues are innate or

acquired, a morally courageous person exhibits the
steadfastness of such virtues through the proper exercise
of the will.
“Doctrine of the Mean” by Aristotle

✓A balance between a surplus of virtues and a lacking of

vices

✓Equilibrium between any excess

✓A practice of moderation

✓“Virtus stat in medio”

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