Role of Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

Essential Questions: What are the structures and processes of protein synthesis? Why is the
sequence of nitrogenous bases / nucleotides important to an organism? In what ways can
an organism be impacted by changes in its DNA?
Concept 1: Concept 2:
DNA and RNA Structure Gene Expression

Objectives: Objectives:
1. Describe the backbone of DNA. 1. Describe the relationship between genes and
2. Explain why DNA strands are described as proteins.
antiparallel. 2. Explain the central dogma.
3. Explain the nucleotide base pairing rule. 3. Summarize, in detail, the steps in
4. Determine what a complementary DNA strand transcription and translation. Include
would read if one strand reads 3’-ACTAG-5’ location of process and enzymes involved.
5. Describe how DNA strands are held together. 4. Describe the roles of the three types of RNA in
6. Identify the three differences between DNA protein synthesis.
and RNA 5. Transcribe the following strand of DNA to
7. Differentiate between the three types of RNA mRNA, and translate a sequence of amino
both in structure and function. acids from the mRNA.
TACACCGGAGCGTTTATT
Vocabulary: 6. Explain how the genetic code is conserved
Antiparallel through evolution.
Base pair
Vocabulary:
Double helix
Anticodon
messenger RNA (mRNA)
Codon
transfer RNA (tRNA)
Gene
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Genetic code
Genome
Transcription
Translation

Concept 3: Concept 4:
Mutation Molecular Technologies

Objectives: Objectives:
1. Describe the basic definition of a mutation, 1. Describe how gel electrophoresis separates
as well as some causes of mutation. DNA fragments.
2. Explain the difference between mutations in 2. Describe PCR
sex cells and those in somatic cells. 3. Explain the use of genetic engineering
3. Explain the difference between gene and techniques in manipulating DNA.
chromosomal mutations. Give an example of 4. Describe the general steps in genetic
disorders caused by each. engineering.
4. Explain the different types of gene
mutations. Show examples of each. Vocabulary:
5. Identify a type of mutation based on a Gel electrophoresis
description or a picture. Genetic engineering
Genetically modified organism (transgenic)
Vocabulary:
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Chromosomal mutation
Restriction enzyme
Gametes (Gametic Cells / Germline)
Gene Mutation
Mutagen
Mutation
Somatic Cells (Body cells)
 Discovery of DNA Structure

Edwin Chargaff Analyzed DNA samples from different species

1950 He found the following rule held true for all species:
● The amount of adenine equals the amount of thymine
● The amount of cytosine equals the amount of guanine

A DNA sample is analyzed and you find that 22% is cytosine, how much
thymine would you expect in the sample? Justify your answer.

Rosalind Franklin Performed X-Ray Crystallography of DNA

1952 Her work revealed a pattern that was regular and repetitive
James Watson and Using information from Chargaff and Franklin determined the 3D, double
Francis Crick helix structure of DNA
1953

Summarize the differences between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA

GENE EXPRESSION
How is information for specifying the traits of an organism carried in DNA?

● Nitrogenous base sequence (ATCGTA…) makes up the genetic code, which determines
traits
● A ____________ codes for one ____________________ which is processed, folded, and
sometimes linked together with other polypeptides to form a protein
● A complete set of genes is called a ____________ which is a set of instructions to build an
entire organism
● Every species’ genome has the same genes arranged in the same order. Small
differences in the sequence of the bases in the genes make each organism unique
● Protein presence, absence, and interactions determine an organism’s traits (growth,
development, cellular functions, structure, etc.)
 Protein Synthesis
The process of reading the instructions in the DNA to make a protein. Proteins are made of amino
acids that are joined together by peptide
bonds to form a polypeptide chain. These
are folded to give the protein a specific
structure that allows it to carry out its
function.

Where does protein synthesis happen?

In eukaryotic cells, transcription happens

in the nucleus and translation happens in
the cytoplasm.

In prokaryotic cells, transcription and

translation both happen in the
cytoplasm.

Central Dogma of Genetics

Transcription
Purpose: Carry the code/instructions out of the nucleus. DNA is copied into a complementary
strand of mRNA. Synthesizes mRNA
(Remember: DNA never leaves the nucleus, and proteins are made in the cytoplasm by ribosomes.)

Location:

Starts with:

Ends with:
Process:
● Unzip the gene that needs to be copied
● RNA polymerase attaches to a promoter sequence of one strand of DNA, the _________,
and begins to add complementary RNA nucleotides one at a time.
● RNA base pairing follows the same rules as DNA, except that ____________, and not
thymine, pairs with adenine. ______ pairs with A.
● Once complete, the mRNA molecule (mRNA = messenger RNA) is released and the DNA
zips back.
● In eukaryotes, the mRNA has non-coding regions called ____________ that interrupt the
sequence and must be removed in a process called splicing.
● The coding regions, called ____________, are reconnected and mRNA exits the nucleus
and enters the cytoplasm
 Translation
Purpose: Read/follow the instructions carried on the mRNA to make a protein. Synthesizes
protein

Location:

Starts with:

Ends with:

Process:
● mRNA attaches to a ____________
● Ribosome reads the mRNA ____________ (3 RNA nucleotides)
● tRNA (transfer RNA) molecules act like taxis to pick up and drop off the _______________
that match with the current codon.
● tRNA’s continue to drop off amino acids, and the ribosome binds the amino acids together
with ____________ bonds.
● When the “stop codon” is reached, the ribosome releases the completed polypeptide
chain

Translation: interpreting the RNA message into a protein.

Genetic Code: virtually universal
 MUTATION

What is a mutation ?

Mutation = any ____________ of the structure of a gene or chromosomes.

● Can occur in any ____________ in the body.
● Caused by:
○ ____________ made during DNA replication, mitosis, meiosis, or protein synthesis
○ ____________ = chemicals that can cause DNA mutations
■ Ex. radiation, UV light, cigarette smoke
○ ____________

Cell types and Mutations:

● ____________ cells
○ Body cells that contain the DNA that make up the organism, but it is not the DNA
that is passed to offspring.
○ In humans, somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
○ Mutations that occur only affect organism, NOT offspring
● ____________ cells
○ Also known as gametes (egg and sperm) and the germline
○ Contain DNA that can be passed to offspring.
○ In humans, gametes contain 23 chromosomes
○ Mutations that occur affect offspring
There are 2 main types of mutations:
● ____________ mutations—happen during DNA replication (S phase of Cell Cycle) = A
change to the original DNA sequence
○ Cystic Fibrosis, Dwarfism, and Sickle Cell Anemia
● _________________ mutations—happen during meiosis = Changes the number or
location of genes
○ Ex. Down Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome, Turner’s Syndrome
○ We will look at chromosomal mutations in a later unit

Gene mutations

Three types of gene mutations

● _________________ - a base is substituted or swapped for another base

● ____________ - one or more bases are inserted or added into the DNA strand

● ____________ - one or more bases are deleted or removed from the DNA strand

These mutations will then cause one of the following changes to the amino acid sequence:
 ● _______________ - nucleotide(s) is inserted or deleted; shifts the reading frame and every
amino acid that follows will be altered
● ____________ - nucleotide is changed and results in the same amino acid
● ____________ - nucleotide is changed and results in different amino acid
● ____________ - nucleotide is changed and results in a stop codon

Result of Gene Mutations

● ______________ mutation = have no effect; the protein does not change
● ______________ mutation = lead to a new version of the protein that helps the organism
● ______________ mutation = results in a protein that does not function normally or may
not function at all

MOLECULAR TECHNOLOGIES
Molecular technologies used to analyze DNA, RNA, or proteins
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
● Amplifies segments of DNA using an automated instrument called a thermocycler
● Useful because a single DNA molecule can be copied numerous times to be used for DNA
analysis, including sequencing
Gel electrophoresis
● Technique used to separate DNA, RNA, or protein molecules based on their size and
electrical charge
● Uses restriction enzymes to recognize specific DNA sequences and cleave, or cut, DNA
into fragments
○ EcoRI is a restriction enzyme the cuts DNA containing the sequence GAATTC
● DNA is loaded into wells on one end of a gel and an electric current is used to separate the
fragments according to their size
DNA Sequencing
● Method used to determine the nucleotide sequence of a DNA fragment
● Uses chemically modified and color tagged nucleotides
● Tagged fragments of the DNA sequence separated by gel electrophoresis
● Gel then analyzed by a DNA sequencing machine that detects the color of each tagged
nucleotide
Genetic engineering
● A technology that involves manipulating, or altering, an organism’s DNA, often by inserting
exogenous DNA (the DNA of another organism)
● Steps involve using various molecular technologies to isolate, cut, and join pieces of DNA
○ Restriction enzymes used to isolate specific genes or regions of the genome
○ CRISPR – a method for locating and editing a piece of DNA
○ Recombinant DNA, a newly generated DNA fragment containing exogenous DNA,
is transferred into living cells
■ A vector, or carrier, is used
■ Viruses and plasmids (small, circular DNA naturally occurring in bacteria and
yeast cells) are common vectors
● Gene cloning
○ Bacteria is mixed with the recombinant plasmids
 ○ Some bacteria will naturally take in the recombinant plasmids through
transformation
○ Bacteria will then make copies of the recombinant plasmid DNA creating large
numbers
● Genetically modified organisms
○ An organism whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering techniques
○ Examples:
■ Transgenic bacteria used to make human insulin
■ Transgenic yeast used to make a soybean protein to flavor veggie burgers
■ Genetically engineered plants to be more resistant to insects, viruses,
herbicides or to produce medication like anti-malaria drugs or a vaccine
against SARS-CoV-2 (covid)
■ Transgenic animals developed to use in research, medicine or to improve the
food supply
● Salmon that grow faster and need less food
● Pigs used as a source of organs for transplant into humans
● Mosquitoes that cannot spread malaria
● Cloning animals