Programming IN C

Chapter 1
Introduction to Computer Programming
Objectives
 Programming Languages
 Algorithms
 The Software Development Process
 Case Study: Design and Development
 Common Programming Errors

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Programming Languages
 Computer program: data and instructions used to
operate a computer and produce a specific result
 A program or set of programs is called software
 Programming: writing instructions in a language that
the computer can respond to and that other
programmers can understand
 Programming language: set of instructions that can be
used to construct a program

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Machine Language
 Executable program: program that can operate a
computer
 Executable programs are written with binary numbers,
which is a computer’s internal language (machine
language)
 An example of a simple machine language program
containing two instructions is:
11000000000000000001000000000010
11110000000000000010000000000011
 Opcode is short for operation code; tells the computer
the operation to be performed

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Assembly Language
 Assembly language: uses the substitution of word-like
symbols for the opcodes, and decimal numbers and
labels for memory addresses
LOAD first
ADD second
MUL factor
STORE answer

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Assembly Language (continued)

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Low- and High-Level Languages
 Machine and assembly languages are low-level languages
because they both use instructions that are directly tied to one
type of computer
 Programs written in a computer language are referred to as
source programs and source code
 When each statement in a high-level source program is
translated individually and executed immediately upon
translation, the programming language is called an interpreted
language
 Interpreter: program that translates each statement in a high-
level source program and executes it immediately upon
translation

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Low- and High-Level Languages
(continued)
 Compiled language: the statements in a high-level source program
are translated as a complete unit before any individual statement is
executed
 Compiler: translates a high-level source program as a complete
unit before any statement is executed
 The output produced by the compiler is called an
object program (machine language version of the
source code)
 Linker: combines additional machine language code with the
object program to create a final executable program

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Low- and High-Level Languages
(continued)

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Procedural and Object-Oriented
Languages
 Procedural language: instructions are used to create
self-contained units, called procedures
 Procedure: accepts data as input and transforms it in some
manner to produce a specific result as output
 Also called function or method
 Procedures conforming to structure guidelines are
known as structured procedures

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Procedural and Object-Oriented
Languages (continued)
 Structured language: high-level procedural language
(e.g., C) that enforces structured procedures
 Object-oriented languages: languages with object
orientation such as C++, Java, Visual Basic, and C#

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Procedural and Object-Oriented
Languages (continued)

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Application and System Software
 Application software: programs written to perform
particular tasks required by users
 System software: collection of programs that must be
readily available to any computer system to enable
the computer to operate
 The bootstrap loader is internally contained in ROM
and is a permanent, automatically executed
component of the computer’s system software

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Application and System Software
(continued)
 Operating system: set of system programs used to
operate and control a computer
 Multiuser system: handles multiple users
concurrently
 Operating systems that permit each user to run
multiple programs are referred to as both
multiprogrammed and multitasking systems

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The Development of C
 Developed in the 1970s at AT&T Bell Laboratories by K.
Thompson, D. Ritchie, and B. Kernighan
 High-level structured language
 Can also access the internal hardware of a computer
 C permits a programmer to “see into” a computer’s
memory and directly alter data stored in it
 Standard maintained by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI)
 In the 1980s, Bjarne Stroustrup (working at AT&T)
developed C++
 C with object-oriented capabilities

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Algorithms
 Algorithm: specific steps required to produce a
desired result
Set n equal to 100
Set a equal to 1
Set b equal to 100
Calculate sum = n(a+ b)/2
Display the sum
 When English phrases are used to describe an
algorithm, the description is called pseudocode
Input the three numbers into the computer
Calculate the average by adding the numbers and dividing the sum by three
Display the average

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Algorithms (continued)

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Algorithms (continued)
 When mathematical equations are used to describe an
algorithm, the description is called a formula
 Flowchart: provides a pictorial representation of an
algorithm using specifically defined shapes

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Algorithms
(continued)

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Algorithms (continued)

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Algorithms (continued)
 Converting an algorithm into a computer program,
using a language such as C, is called coding the
algorithm
 The program instructions resulting from coding an
algorithm are called program code, or simply code

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Algorithms (continued)

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The Software Development Process
 Each field of study has a name for the systematic
method used to design solutions to problems
 In science: called the scientific method
 In engineering: called the systems approach
 The technique used by professional software
developers for understanding the problem that is
being solved and for creating an effective and
appropriate software solution is called the software
development process.

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The Software Development Process
(continued)

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Phase I: Specify the Program’s
Requirements
 Begins with a problem statement or a specific request
for a program, which is called a program requirement
 Suppose you receive an e-mail from your supervisor
that says: We need a program to provide information about
circles
 This is not a clearly defined requirement
 To clarify and define the problem statement, your first step
would be to contact your supervisor to define exactly what
information is to be produced (its outputs) and what data is
to be provided (the inputs)

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Phase II: Design and Development
 Step 1: Analyze the problem. You must understand:
 The outputs that must be produced
 The input data required to create the desired outputs
 The formulas relating the inputs to the outputs
 Step 2: Select an overall solution algorithm

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Phase II: Design and Development
(continued)

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Phase II: Design and Development
(continued)
 For larger programs you will have to refine the initial
algorithm and organize it into smaller algorithms,
with specifications for how these smaller algorithms
will interface with each other
 First-level structure diagram for an algorithm is the first
attempt at a structure for a solution algorithm
 Top-down algorithm development starts at the topmost
level and proceeds to develop more and more detailed
algorithms as it proceeds to the final set of algorithms

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Phase II: Design and Development
(continued)

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Phase II: Design and Development
(continued)

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Phase II: Design and Development
(continued)
 Step 3: Write the program (or code the algorithm)
 Sequence structure defines the order in which instructions
are executed by the program
 Selection structure provides the capability to make a choice
between different instructions, depending on the result of
some condition
 Repetition structure, also called looping or iteration,
provides the ability for the same operation to be repeated
based on the value of a condition
 Invocation structure involves invoking specific sections of
code as they are needed (ie. call function)

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Phase II: Design and Development
(continued)
 Step 4: Test and correct the program
 A program error is called a bug
 Testing attempts to ensure that a program works correctly
and produces meaningful results
 If you find an error, initiate debugging: locating, correcting,
and verifying the correction
 Develop a set of test data that determines whether the
program gives correct answers
 The tests should examine every possible situation under
which a program will be used

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Phase III: Documentation
 Six documents for every problem solution:
1. The requirements statement
2. A description of the algorithms that were coded
3. Comments within the code itself
4. A description of modification and changes made over time
5. Sample test runs, which include the inputs used for each run
and the output obtained from the run
6. A user’s manual, which is a detailed explanation of how to
use the program

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Phase IV: Maintenance
 How easily a program can be maintained (corrected,
modified, or enhanced) is related to the ease with which
the program can be read and understood

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Phase IV: Maintenance (continued)

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Backup
 Making and keeping backup copies of your work
when writing a program is critical
 Not part of the formal software development process
 Backup is unimportant if you don’t mind starting all
over again
 Many organizations keep at least one backup on site
where it can be easily retrieved, and another backup
copy either in a fireproof safe or at a remote location

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Case Study: Design and Development
 The circumference, C, of a circle is given by the formula C =
2r, where  is the constant 3.1416, and r is the radius of
the circle. Using this information, write a C program to
calculate the circumference of a circle that has a 2-inch
radius.
 Step 1: Analyze the problem
 Determine the desired outputs
 Determine the input items
 List the formulas relating the inputs to the outputs
 Perform a hand calculation

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Case Study: Design and Development
(continued)
 Step 2: Select an overall solution algorithm
 Set the radius value to 2
 Calculate the circumference, C, using the formula C = 2  r
 Display the calculated value for C
 Step 3: Write the program (see next slide)
 Step 4: Test and correct the program
 The circumference of the circle is 12.566400
 Because only one calculation is performed by the program,
testing Program 1.1 really means verifying that the single
output is correct

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Case Study: Design and Development
(continued)

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Common Programming Errors
 Rushing to write and execute a program without
spending sufficient time learning about the problem
or designing an appropriate algorithm
 Forgetting to back up a program
 Not understanding that computers respond only to
explicitly defined algorithms

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 Summary
 The programs used to operate a computer are referred to
as software
 Programming languages come in a variety of forms and
types
 Compiler and interpreter languages are referred to as
high-level languages

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Summary (continued)
 Algorithm: step-by-step sequence of instructions that
must terminate and describes how to perform an
operation to produce a desired output
 The software development procedure consists of the
following four phases:
 Specification of the program’s requirements
 Design and development
 Documentation
 Maintenance

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Summary (continued)
 Steps of the design and development phase are:
 Analyze the problem
 Select an overall solution algorithm
 Write the program
 Test and correct the program
 Writing a program consists of translating the solution
algorithm into a computer language
 Fundamental programming control structures
 Sequence, selection, iteration and invocation
 You always need at least one backup of a program

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