PHYSICAL SCIENCES
PAPER 1 – PHYSICS:
Waves, Sound, and Light
1. Waves
Waves are disturbances that transfer energy without permanently displacing
particles. They can be classified into two main types: transverse waves and
longitudinal waves.
1.1 Transverse Waves
Definition: Oscillation of particles is perpendicular to the wave
direction.
Examples: Light waves, water waves, waves on a string.
Key Characteristics:
o Crest: Highest point of the wave.
o Trough: Lowest point of the wave.
o Wavelength (λ): Distance between consecutive crests or troughs.
o Amplitude (A): Maximum displacement from the rest position.
1.2 Longitudinal Waves
Definition: Oscillation of particles is parallel to the wave direction.
Examples: Sound waves, seismic P-waves.
Key Characteristics:
o Compression: Region where particles are close together.
o Rarefaction: Region where particles are spread apart.
o Wavelength (λ): Distance between consecutive compressions or
rarefactions.
2. Sound Waves
Definition: Longitudinal waves that travel through a medium (solid, liquid,
gas).
Key Concepts:
o Frequency (f): Cycles per second, measured in Hertz (Hz).
o Pitch: Perceived frequency; higher frequency means higher pitch.
o Amplitude: Corresponds to sound loudness; larger amplitude = louder
sound.
3. Electromagnetic Radiation
Definition: Waves that can travel through a vacuum; includes radio waves,
microwaves, visible light, etc.
Characteristics:
o Wave-Particle Duality: Exhibits both wave and particle properties.
o Speed of Light: Approximately 3.00 × 108 m/s.
o Wavelength and Frequency: Inversely related; longer wavelength means
lower frequency.
Electricity and Magnetism
1. Static Electricity
Definition: Accumulation of electric charge on surfaces.
Key Concepts:
o Charge: Fundamental property; positive and negative types.
o Coulomb's Law: Describes force between charges.
o Insulators vs. Conductors: Insulators prevent, conductors allow
charge flow.
2. Magnetism
Definition: Force from the motion of electric charges.
Types of Materials:
o Ferromagnetic: Strongly attracted to magnets (e.g., iron).
o Diamagnetic: Weakly repelled (e.g., copper).
o Paramagnetic: Weakly attracted (e.g., aluminium).
Key Concepts:
o Magnetic Field: Vector field around a magnet.
o Magnetic Poles: North and south poles; opposite poles attract.
3. Circuit Electricity
Definition: Pathways for electric current flow.
Types of Circuits:
o Series Circuit: Single path; current is consistent throughout.
o Parallel Circuit: Components share connection points; voltage is
consistent across components.
Key Concepts:
o Ohm's Law: 𝑉 = 𝐼 ⋅ 𝑅
o Current (I): Flow of electric charge, measured in Amperes (A).
o Voltage (V): Electric potential difference, measured in Volts (V).
o Resistance (R): Opposition to current, measured in Ohms (Ω).
Mechanics
1. Vectors and Scalars
Scalars: Quantities with magnitude only (e.g., temperature, mass).
Vectors: Quantities with magnitude and direction (e.g., force, velocity).
2. Motion in One Dimension
Displacement (s): Change in position (vector quantity).
Distance: Total path length (scalar quantity).
Types of Motion:
o Uniform motion: Constant speed.
o Accelerated motion: Changing speed.
3. Instantaneous Speed and Velocity
Instantaneous Speed: Speed at a specific moment.
Instantaneous Velocity: Velocity at a specific moment, with direction.
Equations of Motion (uniformly accelerated motion):
o 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
o 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
o 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠
4. Energy
Energy: The capacity to do work, measured in Joules (J).
Types of Energy:
o Kinetic Energy (KE): Energy of motion, 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝜈
o Potential Energy (PE): Stored energy due to position,𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ.
Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
transformed.
