Fluid Mechanics:

Fundamentals and Applications

4th Edition in SI Units

Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala

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Chapter 2

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

McGraw-Hill | 2
A drop forms when
liquid is forced out of a
small tube. The shape
of the drop is
determined by a
balance of pressure,
gravity, and surface
tension forces.

3
 Objectives
• Have a working knowledge of the basic properties
of fluids and understand the continuum
approximation.
• Have a working knowledge of viscosity and the
consequences of the frictional effects it causes in
fluid flow.
• Calculate the capillary rise (or drop) in tubes due to
the surface tension effect.

4
2–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties: Those that are
independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
Extensive properties: Those whose
values depend on the size—or
extent—of the system.
Criterion to differentiate
Specific properties: Extensive
intensive and extensive
properties per unit mass.
properties.
5
 Continuum
Matter is made up of atoms that are widely
spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very
convenient to disregard the atomic nature
of a substance and view it as a continuous,
homogeneous matter with no holes, that is,
a continuum.
The continuum idealization allows us to
treat properties as point functions and to
assume the properties vary continually in
space with no jump discontinuities.
This idealization is valid as long as the size
of the system we deal with is large relative
to the space between the molecules. This is
the case in practically all problems.
Despite the relatively large gaps
In this text we will limit our consideration to between molecules, a substance can
substances that can be modeled as a be treated as a continuum because
continuum. of the very large number of
molecules even in an extremely
small volume.

6
The length scale associated with most flows, such as seagulls
in flight, is orders of magnitude larger than the mean free path
of the air molecules. Therefore, here, and for all fluid flows
considered in this book, the continuum idealization is
appropriate.
7
2–2 ■ DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Density Specific gravity: The ratio of the density of

a substance to the density of some
standard substance at a specified
temperature (usually water at 4°C).
Specific volume

Specific weight: The weight of a unit

volume of a substance.

Density is mass per

unit volume; specific
volume is volume
per unit mass.
8
9
Density of Ideal Gases
Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure,
temperature, and density (or specific volume) of a substance.
Ideal-gas equation of state: The simplest and best-known equation
of state for substances in the gas phase.

The universal
gas constant

For a fixed mass

10
Temperature Scales
Kelvin scale: The thermodynamic temperature scale in
the SI system.
Rankine scale: The thermodynamic temperature scale in
English system.

11
An ideal gas is a hypothetical substance
that obeys the relation Pv = RT.
The ideal-gas relation closely
approximates the P-v-T behavior of real
gases at low densities.
At low pressures and high temperatures,
the density of a gas decreases and the
gas behaves like an ideal gas.
In the range of practical interest, many
familiar gases such as air, nitrogen,
oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon, neon,
and carbon dioxide can be treated as Air behaves as an ideal gas, even
ideal gases with negligible error. at very high speeds. In this
Dense gases such as water vapor in schlieren image, a bullet traveling
steam power plants and refrigerant at about the speed of sound
vapor in refrigerators, however, should bursts through both sides of a
not be treated as ideal gases since they balloon, forming two expanding
usually exist at a state near saturation. shock waves. The turbulent wake
of the bullet is also visible.
12
2–3 ■ VAPOR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION
Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which a pure
substance changes phase at a given pressure.
Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase at a given temperature.
Vapor pressure (Pv): The pressure exerted by its vapor in phase
equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature. It is identical to
the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv = Psat).
Partial pressure: The pressure of a gas or vapor in a mixture with
other gases. For example, atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air
and water vapor, and atmospheric pressure is the sum of the
partial pressure of dry air and the partial pressure of water vapor.

13
The vapor pressure (saturation
pressure) of a pure substance (e.g.,
water) is the pressure exerted by its
vapor molecules when the system is
in phase equilibrium with its liquid
molecules at a given temperature.

14
There is a possibility of the liquid
pressure in liquid-flow systems
dropping below the vapor pressure
at some locations, and the resulting
unplanned vaporization.
The vapor bubbles (called
cavitation bubbles since they form
“cavities” in the liquid) collapse as
they are swept away from the low-
pressure regions, generating highly
destructive, extremely high- Cavitation damage on a 16-mm by 23-
pressure waves. mm aluminum sample tested at 60 m/
s for 2.5 h. The sample was located at
This phenomenon, which is a
the cavity collapse region downstream
common cause for drop in
of a cavity generator specifically
performance and even the erosion
designed to produce high damage
of impeller blades, is called
potential.
cavitation, and it is an important
consideration in the design of
hydraulic turbines and pumps.
15
2–4 ■ ENERGY AND SPECIFIC HEATS
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and
their sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a
whole with respect to some outside reference frame, such as
kinetic and potential energies.
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
In daily life, we frequently refer to the sensible and latent forms of
internal energy as heat. In engineering, however, those forms of
energy are usually referred to as thermal energy.
Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a result
of its motion relative to some reference frame.
Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a
result of its elevation in a gravitational field.

16
At least six different forms of energy are encountered in bringing power from a
nuclear plant to your home, nuclear, thermal, mechanical, kinetic, magnetic, and
electrical.

17
 Enthalpy

Energy of a
flowing fluid

P/ is the flow energy,

also called the flow work,
which is the energy per
unit mass needed to
move the fluid and
for a P = const. process maintain flow.

For a T = const. process

Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the temperature of
the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the temperature
of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained
constant.
18
The internal energy u represents the microscopic
energy of a nonflowing fluid per unit mass,
whereas enthalpy h represents the microscopic
energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass.

19
2–5 ■ COMPRESSIBILITY
AND SPEED OF SOUND
Coefficient of Compressibility
We know from experience that the volume (or
density) of a fluid changes with a change in its
temperature or pressure.
Fluids usually expand as they are heated or
depressurized and contract as they are cooled
or pressurized.
But the amount of volume change is different
for different fluids, and we need to define
properties that relate volume changes to the
changes in pressure and temperature.
Two such properties are:
the bulk modulus of elasticity 
Fluids, like solids, compress
the coefficient of volume expansion  when the applied pressure
is increased from P1 to P2.
 Coefficient of compressibility
(bulk modulus of compressibility or
bulk modulus of elasticity)
for fluids

The coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure

corresponding to a fractional change in volume or density of the fluid
while the temperature remains constant.
What is the coefficient of compressibility of a truly incompressible
substance (v = constant)?
A large value of  indicates that a large change in pressure is needed
to cause a small fractional change in volume, and thus a fluid with a
large  is essentially incompressible.
This is typical for liquids, and explains why liquids are usually
considered to be incompressible.

21
Water hammer: Characterized by a sound that resembles the
sound produced when a pipe is “hammered.” This occurs when a
liquid in a piping network encounters an abrupt flow restriction
(such as a closing valve) and is locally compressed.

The acoustic waves that are produced strike the pipe surfaces,
bends, and valves as they propagate and reflect along the pipe,
causing the pipe to vibrate and produce the familiar sound.

Water hammering can be quite destructive, leading to leaks or

even structural damage. The effect can be suppressed with a
water hammer arrestor.

22
Water hammer arrestors:
(a) A large surge tower built to
protect the pipeline against water
hammer damage.
(b) Much smaller arrestors used
for supplying water to a household
washing machine.

23
The coefficient of compressibility of an ideal gas is equal to its
absolute pressure, and the coefficient of compressibility of the gas
increases with increasing pressure.

The percent increase of density of an ideal gas during isothermal

compression is equal to the percent increase in pressure.

Isothermal compressibility: The inverse of the coefficient of

compressibility.
The isothermal compressibility of a fluid represents the fractional
change in volume or density corresponding to a unit change in pressure.

24
 Coefficient of Volume Expansion
The density of a fluid depends more
strongly on temperature than it does on
pressure.
The variation of density with temperature
is responsible for numerous natural
phenomena such as winds, currents in
oceans, rise of plumes in chimneys, the
operation of hot-air balloons, heat
transfer by natural convection, and even
the rise of hot air and thus the phrase
“heat rises”.
To quantify these effects, we need a
property that represents the variation of
the density of a fluid with temperature at
constant pressure. Natural convection over
a woman’s hand.
25
The coefficient of volume expansion
(volume expansivity): The variation of the
density of a fluid with temperature at constant
pressure.

A large value of  for a fluid means a large

change in density with temperature,
and the product  T represents the fraction of
volume change of a fluid that corresponds to a
temperature change of T at constant pressure.
The volume expansion coefficient of an ideal
gas (P = RT ) at a temperature T is equivalent
to the inverse of the temperature: The coefficient of volume expansion
is a measure of the change in
volume of a substance with
temperature at constant pressure.
26
In the study of natural convection currents, the condition of the
main fluid body that surrounds the finite hot or cold regions is
indicated by the subscript “infinity” to serve as a reminder that
this is the value at a distance where the presence of the hot or
cold region is not felt. In such cases, the volume expansion
coefficient can be expressed approximately as

The combined effects of pressure and temperature changes on the

volume change of a fluid can be determined by taking the specific
volume to be a function of T and P.

The fractional change in volume (or density) due to changes in

pressure and temperature can be expressed approximately as

27
Vapor cloud around an F/A-18F Super Hornet as
it flies near the speed of sound. The sudden drop
in temperature produces condensation of water
vapor on a visible vapor cloud.

28
The variation of the coefficient of volume
expansion of water with temperature in the
range of 20°C to 50°C.

29
Speed of Sound and Mach Number
Speed of sound (sonic speed): The speed at which an infinitesimally
small pressure wave travels through a medium.

Control volume moving with the

small pressure wave along a duct.

For an ideal gas

For any fluid

Propagation of a small
pressure wave along a duct. 30
The speed of sound in air
increases with temperature. At
typical outside temperatures, c
is about 340 m/s. In round
numbers, therefore, the sound of
thunder from a lightning strike
travels about 1 km in 3 seconds.
If you see the lightning and then
hear the thunder less than 3
seconds later, you know that the
lightning is close, and it is time
to go indoors!

31
 Mach number Ma: The ratio of the
actual speed of the fluid (or an object
in still fluid) to the speed of sound in
the same fluid at the same state.

The Mach number depends on the

speed of sound, which depends on
the state of the fluid.

The speed of sound changes

with temperature and varies
with the fluid.

The Mach number can be different

at different temperatures even if
the flight speed is the same. 32
2–6 ■ VISCOSITY
Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion or the “fluidity”.
Drag force: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction. The magnitude of this force depends, in part, on viscosity.

The viscosity of a fluid is a

measure of its “resistance to
deformation.”
Viscosity is due to the internal
frictional force that develops
between different layers of
fluids as they are forced to
move relative to each other.

A fluid moving relative to a

body exerts a drag force on
the body, partly because of
friction caused by viscosity. 33
 Newtonian fluids: Fluids for
which the rate of deformation
is proportional to the shear
stress.

Shear
stress

The behavior of a fluid in laminar flow Shear force

between two parallel plates when the upper
plate moves with a constant velocity.

 coefficient of viscosity
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity
kg/ms or Ns/m2 or Pas
1 poise = 0.1 Pas
34
The rate of deformation (velocity Variation of shear stress with the
gradient) of a Newtonian fluid is rate of deformation for
proportional to shear stress, and the Newtonian and non-Newtonian
constant of proportionality is the fluids (the slope of a curve at a
viscosity. point is the apparent viscosity of
the fluid at that point).
35
 Kinematic viscosity

m2/s or stoke
1 stoke = 1 cm2/s
For liquids, both the dynamic and
kinematic viscosities are practically
independent of pressure, and any small
variation with pressure is usually
disregarded, except at extremely high
pressures.
For gases, this is also the case for
dynamic viscosity (at low to moderate
pressures), but not for kinematic
viscosity since the density of a gas is
proportional to its pressure.

For gases Dynamic viscosity, in general,

does not depend on pressure,
but kinematic viscosity does.
For
36
liquids
 The viscosity of a fluid is directly related
to the pumping power needed to
transport a fluid in a pipe or to move a
body through a fluid.
Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces
between the molecules in liquids and by
the molecular collisions in gases, and it
varies greatly with temperature.
In a liquid, the molecules possess more
energy at higher temperatures, and they
can oppose the large cohesive
intermolecular forces more strongly. As a
result, the energized liquid molecules can
move more freely.
In a gas, the intermolecular forces are
negligible, and the gas molecules at high
The viscosity of liquids decreases
temperatures move randomly at higher
and the viscosity of gases
velocities. This results in more molecular
increases with temperature.
collisions per unit volume per unit time
and therefore in greater resistance to flow.
37
The variation of
dynamic (absolute)
viscosity of common
fluids with temperature
at 1 atm
(1 Ns/m2 = 1 kg/ms)

38
39
 L length of the cylinder
number of revolutions per unit
time

This equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a

fluid by measuring torque at a specified angular velocity.
Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be used as a
viscometer, a device that measures viscosity. 40
2–7 ■ SURFACE TENSION AND
CAPILLARY EFFECT
Liquid droplets behave like small balloons filled with the
liquid on a solid surface, and the surface of the liquid acts
like a stretched elastic membrane under tension.
The pulling force that causes this tension acts parallel to the
surface and is due to the attractive forces between the
molecules of the liquid.
The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface
tension (or coefficient of surface tension) and is usually
expressed in the unit N/m.
This effect is also called surface energy [per unit area] and is
expressed in the equivalent unit of Nm/m2.

41
Some consequences of surface tension: (a) drops of water beading up on
a leaf, (b) a water strider sitting on top of the surface of water, and (c) a
color schlieren image of the water strider revealing how the water
surface dips down where its feet contact the water (it looks like two
insects but the second one is just a shadow). 42
Attractive forces acting on a
liquid molecule at the surface
and deep inside the liquid.
Stretching a liquid film with a U-
shaped wire, and the forces acting
on the movable wire of length b.

Surface tension: The work done per unit

increase in the surface area of the liquid. 43
The free-body
diagram of
half a droplet
or air bubble
and half a
soap bubble.

44
Capillary Effect
Capillary effect: The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube
inserted into the liquid.
Capillaries: Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels.
The capillary effect is partially responsible for the rise of water to the
top of tall trees.
Meniscus: The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube.
The strength of the capillary effect is quantified by the contact (or
wetting) angle, defined as the angle that the tangent to the liquid surface
makes with the solid surface at the point of contact.

The contact angle

for wetting and
nonwetting fluids.
45
The meniscus of colored water in a
4-mm-inner-diameter glass tube.
Note that the edge of the meniscus
meets the wall of the capillary tube
at a very small contact angle.

46
The capillary rise of water and
the capillary fall of mercury in a The forces acting on a liquid
small-diameter glass tube. column that has risen in a tube
due to the capillary effect.

Capillary rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the

tube and density of the liquid.
47
 Summary
Introduction
• Continuum
Density and Specific Gravity
• Density of Ideal Gases
Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
Energy and Specific Heats
Compressibility and Speed of Sound
• Coefficient of Compressibility
• Coefficient of Volume Expansion
• Speed of Sound and Mach Number
Viscosity
Surface Tension and Capillary Effect

48
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