TOPIC 1: THE ACT A.

Reason and Impartiality Defined as minimum requirement for

Morality
FEELINGS AND MORAL DECISION MAKING
REASON – basis of motive for an action, decision of conviction
"Our feelings play a complex role in shaping our moral decision. While
they can cloud our judgement, they can also guide us towards empathy and IMPARTIALITY (fair-mindedness) – is a principle of justice holding that
compassion". decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of
bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for
WHAT IS FEELINGS? improper reasons.

PHYSIOLOGICAL DO REASONS AND IMPARTIALITY A REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY?

Feelings involve bodily sensations, like a racing heart or stomach butterflies. "Morality at the very least, is the effort to guides one's action based on the
logical choice while giving equal importance to the interest of each person
COGNITIVE affected by your decision" - Dr. James Rachels

Feelings are influenced by our thoughts, belief and memories. B. The 7 Step Moral Reasoning Model of SCOTT RAE (2009)
 Contemporary author Scott B. Rae, Ph.D. proposes a model for
BEHAVIORAL making ethical decisions. To say the least, his suggested 7-step model
introduces the use of reason and impartiality in deciding on moral
Feelings can manifest in our actions, smiling, frowning, or withdrawing. matters.

DEFINITION OF MORAL DECISION MAKING  To sufficiently address the ethical dilemmas that people encounter
regularly, Rae offers model which can be used to ensure that all the
1. ETHICS needed bases are covered. He admits that the model is not a formula
that will automatically generate the "right' answer to an ethical
Moral decision making is often guided by ethical principles, like fairness, problem but a guideline in ascertaining that all the right questions are
honesty and justice. being asked in the process of ethical deliberation.

2. CONSEQUENCES
STEP 1: GATHER THE FACTS
We consider the potential impact of our actions on ourselves and others.
The simplest way of clarifying an ethical dilemma is to make sure the facts
3. INTUITION are clear.

Gut feelings and instincts can play a role in moral decision, though they ASK: Do you have the facts that are necessary to make a good decision?
should be carefully considered. What do we know? What do we need to know? In this light it might
become clear that the dilemma is not ethical but about communication or
ROLE OF FEELINGS IN MORAL DECISION MAKING strategy.

1. FEELINGS CAN HELP IN MORAL DECISION MAKING STEP 2: DETERMINE THE ETHICAL ISSUES

There are situations where our feelings and likings are relevant to the Stated in terms of legitimate competing interests or goods. The competing
rightness of our decision and actions. Like selecting a course to take, a job interests are what creates the dilemma. Moral values and virtues must
to assume and person to marry. support the competing interests for an ethical dilemma to exist. If you
cannot identify the underlying values/virtues, then you do not have an
2. HOW ARE DECIONS AFFECT BY EMOTION ethical dilemma. Often people hold these positions strongly and with
passion because of the value or virtue beneath them.
Emotions are created when the brain interprets what’s going on around us
through our memories, thoughts, and beliefs. This triggers how we feel and STEP 3: DETERMINE THE PRINCIPLES WHICH HAVE BEARING
behave. All decisions influenced by this process in some way. IN THE SITUATION

HOW ARE DECISIONS AFFECT BY EMOTION Central to the competing positions. Identify these. Determine if some
should be given more weight than others. Ask what the source for the
Peer Pressure - Conforming to social norms can lead to decision that are principle constitution is, culture, natural law, religious tradition.
not in line with one's values.
STEP 4: LIST THE ALTERNATIVES
Personal Passion - Following one's passion can lead to greater fulfillment.
Creatively determine possible courses of action for your dilemma. Some
Uncertainty - Fear of the unknown can prevent individuals from making will almost immediately be discarded but generally the more you list the
choices that align with their dreams. greater potential for coming up with a really good one. It will also help you
come up with a broader selection of ideas
ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF FEELING IN MORAL
STEP 5: COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH THE
DECISION MAKING PRINCIPLES
ADVANTAGE This step eliminates alternatives as they are weighed by the moral
principles which have a bearing on the case. Potentially the issue will be
Emotions can motivate us to act, improve our relationships, and enhance
resolved here as all alternatives except one are eliminated. Here you must
our creativity.
satisfy all the relevant virtues and values so at least some of the alternatives
DISADVANTAGE will be eliminated (even if you still have to go on to step 6). Often here you
have to weight principles and virtues make sure you have a good reason for
Emotions can cloud our judgement, lead to impulsive actions, and hinder each weighting.
our ability to think rationally.
STEP 6: WEIGH THE CONSEQUENCES
MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR MORALITY If principles have not yielded a clear decision consider the consequences of
your alternatives. Take the alternatives and work out the positive and
Humans have not only feelings but also reason, and reason plays a vital role
negative consequences of each. Estimate how beneficial each positive and
in Ethics. In fact, moral truths are truths of reason; that is, a moral judgment
negative consequence is some might have greater weight than others.
is true if it is espoused by better reasons than the alternatives.
STEP 7: MAKE A DECISION DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WILL AND REASON
Ethical decisions rarely have pain-free solutions - it might be you have to WILL
choose the solution with the least number of problems/painful
consequences. Will is the power of the mind to decide and make things happen.

Ability to weigh options, prioritize objections, and make choices based on

internal motivation.
MORAL COURAGE
The faculty of choice or decision, by which we determine which actions we
WHAT IS MORAL COURAGE? shall perform.

MORAL - is concerned with the principles of right and wrong ethically. In Filipino - kalooban, hangad

COURAGE - can be defined as an act or responsibility that can be EXAMPLE: A student is faced with the decision to either cheat on an
manifest in times of dilemma and the ability to confront danger, fear, important exam or to study hard and do their best honestly.
intimidation, pain or uncertainty.
The concept of ‘will’ in this situation involves the student’s ability to
MORAL COURAGE choose the ethical course of action despite the potential easier short-term
gain through cheating.
The courage to take action for moral reasons despite risk or adverse
consequences.
REASON
Moral courage is the ability to stand up for and practice that which one
considers ethical, moral behavior when faced with a dilemma, even if it Reason is the capacity of the human to think logically, analyze information.
means going against countervailing pressure to do otherwise. and make informed judgements. It involves the use of logic, evidence, and
critical thinking to arrive at conclusion. It serves as the cognitive or
MORAL COURAGE LOOKS LIKE… intellectual aspect of decision-making. Reason is associated with
knowledge.
• A teen who calls home for a ride from a party where alcohol is being
served In Filipino - dahilan, rason

• Reporting a crime EXAMPLE: A student is deciding whether to participate in group project

or to work alone.
• Standing up to a bully on the playground
The concept of ‘reason’ involves the student using theological thinking to
• Helping someone at the street even if it means being late make an informed decision. The reason might working in a group could
lead to better ideas and a more comprehensive final project and working
LACK OF MORAL COURAGE LOOKS LIKE… alone allows for more control over the project and less risk of conflict.

• Laughing at someone's misfortune or accident DEVELOPING THE WILL

• Grabbing the spotlight from someone who has earned it Developing will involves developing self-control. It includes nurturing the
ability to stick to actions, thoughts, and behavior, which lead to moral
• Remaining silent in the face of wrong-doing or injustice improvement and success. It encompasses the inner strength to focus all the
energy on a moral goal and persevere until it is accomplished.
ELEMENTS OF MORAL COURAGE
Developing the will includes developing and practicing self - discipline, do
1. PRINCIPLE (CONVICTION, CORE VALUES, FOUNDATION mental strength training, have inspiration.
FOR BELIEFS)
The fundamental way to develop our will involves setting a goal, working
A comprehensive and fundamental law, doctrine, or assumption toward that goal and monitoring our progress. Each of these steps requires
skill and intelligence.
A rule or code of conduct

In the context of moral courage, principles are fundamental ethical

TOPIC 2: WESTERN ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLE
standards or values that guide an individual's actions and decisions,
especially in challenging situations. These principles often involve a The goal of Western Ethics is generally for individuals to achieve self-
commitment to truth, justice, and integrity, and they drive individuals to act direction and self- understanding which have direct impact on ethical
in accordance with their values, even when facing personal risk or adversity. decision making Our intangible decision making as to determine what is
For example, principles like honesty, fairness, and respect for others are right or wrong permeates everyday life. Ethical problems are often complex
central to demonstrating moral courage. and novel; they present themselves in unique contexts in which conflicting
principles are at stake. Ethics should concern all levels of life acting
2. DANGER (POSSSIBILITY OF SUFFERING PHYSICAL OR
properly as individuals creating responsible organizations and governments
MENTAL HARM AND INJURY)
and making our society as a whole more ethical.
Exposure or liability to injury, pain, harm, and loss
BASIC AREAS OF ETHICAL STUDY
In the context of moral courage, "danger" refers to the risks that individuals
might face when they act according to their ethical beliefs. This danger can NORMATIVE ETHICS - It is also known as Prescriptive Ethics.
be physical, social, or psychological, such as the potential for personal harm,
Normative ethics is the branch of ethics that deals with moral rules and
social criticism, or emotional distress. Moral courage involves confronting
principles.
these dangers in order to uphold one's values and principles, even when it
puts one at risk. The word 'normative' signifies 'norms' or 'rules' to be followed. The
definition of normative ethics can be stated as laying certain rules about
3. ENDURANCE
good and bad and following them diligently.
The ability to withstand hardship or adversity. The act of an instance of
It is the study of our ethical actions, asking ourselves "how we should act in
enduring or suffering
a certain situation
Endurance in moral courage refers to the ability to persist in standing up for
It involves arriving at moral decisions that regulate right and wrong conduct
one's ethical beliefs and values despite facing significant challenges,
based on the norms that you need to follow.
opposition, or suffering. It involves maintaining one's principles over time,
even when it is difficult or requires substantial personal sacrifice.
META ETHICS - The study of moral thought and moral language. Meta-
ethics asks what morality actually is.
Meta ethics addresses the second-order question, such as the meaning and 2. JUSTICE - It is concerned with the will. Justice is the virtue that
status of moral judgments. consists in giving to God and neighbor what due to each, "Giving to
them what is rightly belong to them", to established the peace and
Meta ethics is also known as Analytical Ethics that concerned with
elucidating the meaning of ethical terms or the discipline concerned with harmony that bring together people and allow them to proper while
the comparison of ethical theories. living in community.
3. FORTITUDE - Prudence and justice are the virtue through which we
APPLIED ETHICS - Applied ethics, also called practical ethics, is the decide what need to be done. Fortitude give us strength to do it.
application of ethics to real-world problems. Applied ethics attempts to 4. TEMPERATURE - While fortitude is concerned with the restraint of
answer the question of how people should act in specific situations. fear so what that we can act, restraint of our desire or passions,
Refers to any use of philosophical methods critically to examine practical "Moderation in all things,".
moral decisions and to treat moral problems, practices, and policies in the
professions, technology, government, and the like As a problem-solving
branch of ethics, it strives to find out the application of moral knowledge KANT’S RIGHTS AND THEORY
into practice.
IMMANUEL KANT
VIRTUE ETHICS - Virtue ethics by Aristotle fall under the Virtue -based
theory. Since virtues are moral characteristics needed by an individual to •Greatly influenced by David Hume.
live well (De Guzman et.al,. 2017), then Virtue Ethics serves as a guiding
•Known for his “categorical imperative” and inspiration for German
principle with regards to what is morally right or wrong having virtues as
Idealism.
its basis.
• Studied theology at University of Konigsberg.
Virtue ethics claims that a good man is someone who lives virtuously,
Aristotle said that everyone is in pursuit of Goodness. Hence, everyone He is a German Lutheran theologian and philosopher famous at the most
should live virtuously in order to attain it. influential in the Age of Enlightenment and Western philosophy. He three
books: Critique of Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, Critique of the
3 KINDS OF ETHICAL THEORIES Power of Judgment. He is renowned student, writer and professor in
mathematics, physics, and metaphysics
1. DEONTOLOGICAL THEORY - puts its emphasis on the moral
obligation and duty of a person. Kantianism or Kantian Ethics is a Deontological Theory that emphasizes
2. CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORY - relates to the consequences of morality based on duty, reason, moral principle, moral obligation, and
actions done by a moral agent. motive or intention.
3. VIRTUE BASED THEORY – centers ethics on individual character
Deontology one of the distinctive features of Kant’s ethics is that focuses on
duties, defined by right and wrong. Comes from the Greek word “deon”
Thomas provided different kinds of law and as a rational being, we which means duty or obligation.
have free will through our capacity of reason are able to direct us in
one way or another unknowingly that these actions are directed 1. DUTY PRINCIPLE - “Humans are motivated by the duty to act
towards attaining out end. morally or rationally instead of emotionally or without reason.”
ENTERNAL LAW - -refers to the rational plan of God by which all Kant argues that duty or moral obligation is the very nature of the pure
creation is ordered (De Guzman,2017). As god is the supreme ruler of human reason. This means that as rational agents, people can grasp the
everything there is an already divine plan for each and every one. moral principles and act out of his principles without the aid of experience
and consideration of consequences.
NATURAL LAW - -is the law or order to which people are subject by their
nature ordering them to do good or evil (De Guzman,2017) Mankind has 2. GOOD WILL PRINCIPLE - “Nothing can possibly be conceived in
always been a part of the eternal order of the divine being which was also the world, or even out of it, which can be called good without
dictated by that of practical reason. qualification, except a good will.”
HUMAN LAW - is the application of natural law to particular societies by Kant holds that fundamentally, there is only one thing that is good in and of
way of "conclusions" and determinations (De Guzman,2017). This is also itself the Good Will. It is the overarching principle of all morality. Good
called as the positive laws wherein moral virtues are reinforced and will is the very nature of the person’s free will.
cultivated.
3. CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE PRINCIPLE - “Act only
DIVINE LAW - -is more focused on how the man can be inwardly holy according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that
and eventually attain salvation (De Guzman,2017) .This is essential because it should become a universal law.”
this compliments to the other types of law.
Kant distinguishes two types of Imperatives:

Through teachings,we are implicity making the connection between 1. Hypothetical Imperative Contingent Command - it is a conditional
morality and happiness in attempts to restore an "Ethics of God" and on a person’s wants, needs, or desires and normally comes in the
"Morality of Happiness". following Porn: “If you want need A then ought to do B.”

Ethic of God- state of doing good to other person. Example: The advice, “If you want to do well on a test, then you should
study a lot.’ The command that you should study is contingent on your
Morality of Happiness - are the things that makes one feels good and desire to do well on the test.
enjoying life.
2. Categorical Imperative - it is not contingent on wants, desires, or
needs.
We cannot achieve the final happiness as moral according to Aquinas
since he sorted it to 2:" The incomplete Happiness" and " Complete A categorical imperative, instead of taking an “if-then” form, it is an
Happiness". absolute command such as, “Do,” “You ought to do.”

Incomplete Happiness -it is the state that we achieve by our natural human Examples: “You shouldn’t kill.”; “You ought to help those in need.”; “Don’t
aptitude,or the natural things we do good to people. steal.”

Perfect or Complete Happiness - it lies beyond what we are able to

achieve in our own. 4. PERSON AS AN END PRINCIPLE - “Act so that you treat people
never as a mere means to an end, but always as end in themselves.”

1. PRUDENCE - First cardinal virtue because it is concerned with the This “person as ends in themselves” principle is a second test that could be
intellect. Prudence guides the judgement of our conscience in considered as the same with the golden rule: “Treat others as you would
discerning our true good and in applying moral principles to particular like them to treat you” or “Do to others what you want others do unto you.”
circumstances.
5. END LAWMAKER PRINCIPLE - “Act as if you were, through JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS IN ETHICS
your maxims, a lawmaker of kingdom of ends.”
Justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more
Kant thinks that persons as ends are autonomous. Autonomous persons are traditional terms, giving each person his or her due. Justice and fairness are
able to exercise free and good will by legislating the moral law for closely related terms that are often today used interchangeably. While
everyone. Every rational being is able to regard himself as a maker of justice usually has been used with reference to a standard of rightness,
universal law not because of an external moral authority but under the fairness often has been used with regard to an ability to judge without
authority of his own reason alone. Being autonomous demands respect for reference to one's feelings or interests; fairness has also been used to refer
“ends” or persons have basic moral rights. to the ability to make judgments that are not overly general but that are
concrete and specific to a particular case.
TWO DIFFERENT KINDS OF RIGHTS
JUSTICE
MORAL RIGHTS
• Justice, for many people, refers to fairness. But while justice is important
Rights that arise from being part of a social community which recognizes to almost everyone, it means different things to different groups.
the inherent worth of a human being to one another. It is brought out from
the basic respect and value one gives to another person. • Justice is the ethical, philosophical idea that people are to be treated
impartially, fairly, properly, and reasonably by the law and by arbiters of the
Example: A person has the moral rights to expect others to give her credit law, that laws are to ensure that no harm befalls another, and that, where
for her works. harm is alleged, a remedial action is taken - both the accuser and the
accused receive a morally right consequence merited by their actions
LEGAL RIGHTS
• The most fundamental principle of justice-one that has been widely
A right created under the law. It can be based in the constitution or a statute. accepted since it was first defined by Aristotle more than two thousand
It is usually the crystallization of the tradition, values and what is generally years ago-is the principle that "equals should be treated equally and
regarded as ethical and moral within a specific political area and recognized unequals unequally."
by a duly authorized authority (which in most cases would be the state and
its citizens). They might be loosely termed also as codified moral rights. TYPES OF JUSTICE
Example: A qualified voter has the right to vote provided he/she does not SOCIAL JUSTICE - is the notion that everyone deserves equal economic,
have any of the disqualifications. political, and social opportunities irrespective of race, gender, or religion.

DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE - refers to the equitable allocation of assets in

UTILITARIANISM society.
What is Utilitarianism? ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE - is the fair treatment of all people with
regard to environmental burdens and benefits.
Utilitarianism is a theory of morality that advocates actions that foster
happiness or pleasure and oppose actions that cause unhappiness or harm. RESTORATIVE JUSTICE - seeks to make whole those who have
When directed toward making social, economic, or political decisions, a suffered unfairly.
utilitarian philosophy would aim for the betterment of society as a whole.
RETRIBUTIVE JUSTICE - seeks to punish wrongdoers objectively and
•Utilitarianism promotes “the greatest amount of good for the greatest proportionately.
number of people.”
PROCEDURAL JUSTICE - refers to implementing legal decisions in
•When used in a sociopolitical construct, utilitarian ethics aims for the accordance with fair and unbiased processes.
betterment of society as a whole.

•Utilitarianism is a reason-based approach to determining right and wrong, FAIRNESS

but it has limitations.
Fairness is the product of moral judgment - the process by which people
•Utilitarianism does not account for things like feelings and emotions, determine what is morally right and what is morally wrong.
culture, or justice.
PRINCIPLES OF FAIRNESS
Understanding Utilitarianism
• Treat all people equitably based on their merits and abilities and handle all
Utilitarianism is a tradition of ethical philosophy that is associated with essentially similar situations similarly and with consistency.
Jeremy Bentham (1747-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), two
British philosophers, economists, and political thinkers. Utilitarianism • Make all decisions on appropriate criteria, without undue favoritism or
holds that an action is right if it tends to promote happiness and wrong if it improper prejudice.
tends to produce sadness, or the reverse of happiness—not just the
happiness of the actor but that of everyone affected by it. • Never blame or punish people for what they did not do, and appropriately
sanction those who violate moral obligations or laws.
TWO VARIES OF UTILITARIANISM
• Promptly and voluntarily correct personal and institutional mistakes and
ACT UTILITARIANISM - This version is about the consequences of improprieties.
specific acts.
• Not take unfair advantage of people's mistakes or ignorance.
An example of act utilitarianism could be when pharmaceutical companies
release drugs that have been governmentally approved, but with known WHY DOES FAIRNESS MATTER?
minor side effects because the drug is able to help more people than are
bothered by the side effects. Act utilitarianism often demonstrates the For individuals, cultivating the character strength of fairness is correlated
concept that “the end justifies the means”—or it’s worth it. with highly desirable developmental outcomes. It helps people to become
trustworthy friends, responsible citizens, and generally moral people.
RULE UTILITARIANISM - This version is about the consequences of Fairness is also essential for the good of the group.
general rules

An example of rule utilitarianism in business is tiered pricing for a product

or service for different types of customers. In the airline industry, for
example, many planes offer first-, business-, and economy-class seats.
Customers who fly in first or business class pay a much higher rate than
those in economy seats, but they also get more amenities—simultaneously,
people who cannot afford upper-class seats benefit from the economy rates.
This practice produces the highest good for the greatest number of people.